CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The main aim of this literature review is to critically examine existing research, lay down a solid
theoretical foundation, and position this current study within the broader academic conversation
on alternative building materials. As the construction industry globally looks for practical ways to
cut down on environmental degradation while tackling housing deficits, testing the performance
of upcycled materials has become a major focal point for engineers and researchers (UNIDO,
2021).
To fully support the objectives of this research and assess whether the case study structure in
Kaduna is truly viable, this chapter breaks down five key areas: sustainable construction and
plastic waste reuse, the use of sand-filled plastic bottles as masonry units, compressive strength
and structural behavior, thermal performance, and a combined look at ballistic resistance, cost,
and environmental impact.
This chapter is structured into five main sections. It starts with a conceptual review that breaks
down the major variables. Next, a theoretical framework grounds the research in proven
engineering and ecological principles. The chapter then moves into an empirical review, breaking
down past projects and studies to highlight their methodologies, structural findings, and where
they fall short. From there, a clear research gap is identified, showing exactly what is missing in
current literature and how this thesis will fill that void. Finally, a summary ties everything
together and sets the stage for the methodology in Chapter Three.
2.2 Conceptual Review
Sustainable Construction and Waste Material Reuse: In the context of civil engineering, this
means designing and building in a way that reduces environmental damage by turning waste into
functional infrastructure. Sharma, 2017 looks at this mostly from an energy-saving angle,
pointing out that replacing energy-heavy baked bricks with upcycled PET bottles drastically cuts
down greenhouse gas emissions. On the flip side, Dodo et al., 2024 look at it from a socio-
economic angle, arguing that reusing waste turns trash into an economic resource, tackling the
housing deficit while meeting Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 11 and 12). This project
combines both views: seeing the Yahaya Ahmed Residence not just as a way to clear plastic from
our gutters and reduce embodied energy, but as an affordable housing solution for Northern
Nigeria.
Plastic Bottle Units (Eco-bricks): These are essentially non-conventional masonry blocks made
by repurposing discarded plastic containers for load-bearing walls. Fatima and Sharma, 2017
define them structurally as bottles tightly rammed with sand to form rigid modules that can
independently carry wall loads. Gunachandrabose, 2016, however, just sees them as "fillers"
meant to take up space in a concrete mix to save cement, rather than acting as true load-bearing
units. This study leans on Fatima and Sharma’s definition, focusing on densely compacted, sand-
filled PET bottles bound by concrete or mud—exactly as they are used in the Kaduna case study.
Compressive Strength in Alternative Masonry: This is the maximum axial load a block can
take before it cracks or fails. When dealing with bottles in concrete, Robleh et al., 2021 argued
that plastic bottles essentially act as "voids," making the block weaker than solid concrete.
However, Adebiyi et al., 2024 proved that when these bottles are densely packed with sand and
laid horizontally inside a concrete block, they act like a reinforcing core, actually increasing the
compressive strength beyond that of a normal block. By carrying out physical compression tests,
this thesis will settle this debate and establish the true load-bearing capacity of these units.
Thermal Performance: This refers to how well a wall system blocks heat from entering a
building. Robleh et al., 2021 focus on the plastic itself, noting that the plastic shell reduces heat
transfer by up to 56%. On the flip side, Kim et al., 2019 approach it from the angle of "thermal
mass" rather than just simple insulation. They explain that the heavy sand packed tightly inside
the bottles—along with the mud or mortar binding them—soaks up the sun's heat during the day.
This moderates temperature swings and actively buffers the house from the intense sun, keeping
the interior much cooler in hot climates.
So, while Robleh et al. gave credit to the plastic shell for acting as an insulator, Kim et al. gave
credit to the dense sand core for absorbing the heat. This study brings both of these concepts
together to evaluate the walls of our case study structure. The goal is to investigate exactly how
this combination—the plastic acting as an insulator and the sand acting as a thermal mass—works
hand-in-hand to fight off the extreme, hot semi-arid climate of Northern Nigeria.
Ballistic and Impact Resistance: This is a wall's ability to take a sudden, high-velocity hit (like
a bullet) without shattering or allowing penetration. Shatskyi et al., 2021 explain this technically,
stating that the ductility of the PET polymer stops the concrete from suffering brittle failure under
shock. Meanwhile, Fatima and Sharma, 2017 just make observational claims that sand-filled
bottles absorb shock and are bullet-resistant. This study aims to move past these anecdotes by
establishing an operational standard to actually test the projectile resistance of these panels for
conflict-prone zones.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
The Theory of Sustainable Development: Traced back to the 1987 Brundtland Commission,
this theory insists that we must build for today without destroying the resources needed for
tomorrow. In construction, it means cutting down reliance on materials that require massive
energy to produce (Dodo et al., 2024). This theory is the backbone of this study because using
plastic bottles to replace concrete blocks directly applies this concept: we solve the housing
deficit in the North while cleaning up plastic pollution (UNIDO, 2021).
The Theory of Material Substitution in Structural Engineering: This is the mechanical
foundation of the work. It states that standard materials can be replaced by alternatives as long as
the new material performs just as well—or better—in terms of strength, insulation, and durability,
while being cheaper or greener (Safinia & Alkalbani, 2016). Because introducing plastics into
masonry changes how stress is distributed (Shatskyi et al., 2021), this theory dictates that rigorous
laboratory testing must be done. We can't just assume the bottles work; we have to test them to
prove they can safely replace standard 9-inch blocks (Adebiyi et al., 2024).
The Circular Economy Framework: Proposed by Pearce and Turner in 1990, this economic
model shifts away from "take, make, dispose" to a closed-loop system where waste is
continuously reused (UNIDO, 2021). Instead of PET bottles causing floods and ending up in
landfills, they are captured and turned into permanent structural assets. This turns an
environmental nightmare into a cheap housing solution (Omisande et al., 2024) and serves as the
basis for Objective 5 of this research.
2.4 Empirical Review (Related Works)
2.4.1 Studies on Compressive Strength
Robleh et al., 2021 tested self-compacting concrete blocks containing empty 350ml plastic
bottles. While it saved concrete volume by 23%, the strength dropped from 20.2 MPa to about 9-
13 MPa. The study was great at analyzing spatial geometry, but testing empty bottles misses the
whole point of using a dense, sand-filled core to carry loads.
Adebiyi et al., 2024 did it better by casting sand-filled 600ml bottles horizontally and vertically
inside concrete blocks. They found that horizontally laid sand-filled bottles actually increased the
28-day compressive strength to 10.74 N/mm², beating the solid control blocks (9.37 N/mm²). This
validated the structural advantage of the horizontal placement used in the Kaduna house.
Similarly, Safinia and Alkalbani, 2016 tested empty bottles in Oman to improve insulation,
achieving a 57% strength improvement over local hollow blocks, but again, empty bottles limit
the application for heavy load-bearing walls.
Mohana Priya et al., 2018 used construction demolition waste to fill the bottles, noting a 12-17%
strength increase in composite blocks, but quickly concluded it was only good for temporary
structures. Rajakumari et al., 2017 showed that spacing the bottles equally gave the best strength,
but they stopped testing at 7 days, which is entirely insufficient for standard civil engineering 28-
day maturation criteria. Finally, Kim et al., 2019 proved sand-filled bottles beat empty ones, but
their use of a weak clay-daub binder meant the overall wall panels lacked serious structural
rigidity.
2.4.2 Studies on Thermal Performance
Kim et al., 2019 concluded that thick walls made of clay and sand-filled bottles act as excellent
thermal mass, buffering extreme outside heat. However, they based this mostly on physical mass
calculations and literature rather than actual sensor measurements. Dodo et al., 2024 tried to
assess this in Abuja by handing out questionnaires to 41 builders. While builders praised the
strength, many were unsure about the thermal metrics. Relying on surveys for engineering
variables is a major weakness. Fatima and Sharma, 2017 also noted the excellent insulation of
bottle houses, but again, provided no experimental U-values or thermal conductivity coefficients.
2.4.3 Studies on Ballistic Resistance
Shatskyi et al., 2021 used mathematical modelling to show that adding PET to concrete increases
shock absorption and stops brittle cracking. While the math is solid, they didn't do any live-fire
testing. Carson, 2017 proposed actually shooting a sand-filled bottle wall with 9mm and 40
caliber rounds to prove it acts like a military sandbag bunker. However, this was just an
administrative proposal, not a published, peer-reviewed result. Currently, the claim that bottle
houses are "bulletproof" is based on site-engineer hype rather than standardized NIJ or UL 752
ballistic testing.
2.4.4 Studies on Cost Analysis
Dodo et al., 2024 confirmed via practitioner surveys in Abuja that bottle building is highly
affordable, but didn't provide a real bill of quantities (BOQ). Gunachandrabose, 2016 proved that
bottle blocks are cheaper than fly ash bricks, but only looked at small-scale units, not full
buildings. Adebiyi et al., 2024 agreed it’s cost-effective for low-income housing but didn't crunch
the exact numbers. Fatima and Sharma, 2017 estimated that a bottle house costs about one-third
of a standard block house, which is a great baseline, but they relied on secondary data rather than
primary field cost analysis.
2.4.5 Studies on Environmental Benefits
Omisande et al., 2024 practically proved the environmental benefit by using PET bottles as fillers
for a concrete footpath, achieving a compressive strength of 23.5 MPa while clearing local waste.
However, they only tested flat footpaths, not vertical walls. Sharma, 2017 showed that replacing
fired bricks with bottles drastically cuts the industry's carbon footprint, though this was purely a
desk study. A massive UNIDO report, 2021 surveying over 4,000 Nigerians confirmed that
upcycling plastics into houses (specifically mentioning the Kaduna structure) is a top-tier circular
economy solution for Nigeria. But again, UNIDO looked at it strictly as a waste-management
policy, offering zero structural engineering data.
2.5 Research Gap
A critical look at the literature shows some glaring holes. First, many of the heavy empirical tests
were done outside Nigeria, in places like Oman or Asia, where the climate and materials differ
Safinia & Alkalbani, 2016. Second, most researchers treated the building like a puzzle, only
testing one piece at a time. Some tested compressive strength but used empty bottles Robleh et
al., 2021. Others "tested" thermal and economic viability by just asking builders for their
opinions instead of measuring it in a lab Dodo et al., 2024.
Most importantly, despite the Yahaya Ahmed Residence in Kaduna being famous in the media as
Nigeria’s premier sustainable bottle house, there is absolutely zero formal, peer-reviewed
scientific data backing up its structural claims.
The major gap is this: no single study has combined compressive strength, thermal buffering, live
ballistic resistance, and hard cost analysis on a real, existing sand-filled plastic bottle wall system
in Northern Nigeria. We hear the claims that it can stop a bullet and stay cool in the Jos or
Kaduna heat, but the empirical data isn't there.
This study steps in to close that gap. By building and crushing modular representations of the
exact wall system used in the Kaduna house, this research moves the conversation from media
hype to hard civil engineering facts.
2.6 Summary
This chapter has reviewed the core concepts, theories, and past works relating to upcycled plastic
bottle construction. The theoretical framework anchored the work in Sustainable Development,
Material Substitution, and the Circular Economy. The empirical review showed that while using
PET bottles is great for the environment and works for low-rise structures, the current research is
too fragmented. Past authors relied too much on empty bottles, 7-day tests, theoretical math, or
subjective surveys Adebiyi et al., 2024.
The biggest takeaway is the lack of holistic scientific data on the Yahaya Ahmed Residence.
Without combined structural, thermal, ballistic, and economic data, the government and civil
engineers cannot safely adopt this method at a large scale. To fix this, Chapter Three will break
down the specific methodology, laboratory experiments, and analytical frameworks that will be
used to cast, test, and validate this case study structure.