CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter breaks down the step-by-step methodology adopted to test, evaluate, and
validate the use of sand-filled plastic bottles as a sustainable building material in Northern
Nigeria. It covers the overall research design, the materials sourced, how the specimens
were prepared, the actual laboratory testing procedures, the cost analysis, and how the data
will be interpreted. Everything outlined here is directly tied to answering the five core
objectives of this project: determining compressive strength, evaluating thermal
performance, testing ballistic resistance, comparing costs, and quantifying the
environmental benefits of adopting this alternative construction method.
3.2 Research Design and Methodology
To get objective, reliable results, this study uses a quantitative experimental research
design. Basically, to fully evaluate how viable this material is, the research relies on a three-
pronged approach: laboratory testing of modular wall specimens, a physical analysis of the
Yahaya Ahmed case study structure, and a desk-based economic and environmental
assessment.
First, the laboratory tests involve actually casting the sand-filled bottle panels and running
controlled experiments to get primary data on their load-bearing capacity, heat transfer,
and impact resistance. Second, the case study analysis connects these lab results to reality
by referencing the actual architectural setup of the Yahaya Ahmed Residence. Finally, the
desk-based analysis uses current market rates and life-cycle data to see if this method
actually saves money and the environment compared to our standard 9-inch sandcrete
blocks.
This combined approach is necessary because relying on lab tests alone would only prove
the structural strength; it wouldn't tell us if the average Nigerian can afford it or if it
practically solves the plastic waste problem. Similar mixed methodologies have been
successfully used by researchers like Kim et al. (2019:
[Link]
Adebiyi et al. (2024: [Link] and
Fatima & Sharma (2017: [Link] to test
structural behaviour alongside cost and sustainability.
3.3 Materials Used
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Bottles: The primary structural units are post-
consumer 1.5-litre and 2-litre plastic bottles. These are scavenged from waste streams,
washed, and repurposed to replace standard fired bricks or blocks. Literature shows
that these larger bottle capacities work perfectly as building blocks once tightly packed
and capped (Kim et al., 2019).
Fine Aggregate (River Sand): Clean, dry, sharp river sand is used to fill the PET bottles.
This acts as the structural core. By tightly packing and tamping the sand to remove air
voids, the flimsy plastic shell is transformed into a dense, load-bearing unit (Rajakumari
et al., 2017).
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): Grade 42.5N cement, conforming to BS EN 197-1
standards, is used as the main binder for the concrete mortar matrix. The cement
interlocks the bottles, giving the wall panel its rigidity and ensuring loads are
distributed evenly across the structure (Robleh et al., 2021).
Coarse Aggregate (Crushed Granite): Crushed granite is mixed into the mortar matrix
surrounding the bottles. This provides volumetric stability and internal compressive
resistance, allowing the concrete to properly grip the smooth plastic and handle heavy
vertical loads (Rajakumari et al., 2017).
Water: Clean, potable water is used to hydrate the cement during casting. It's crucial
that the water is free from impurities to ensure the concrete cures properly and
achieves maximum strength around the bottles (Mohana Priya et al., 2018).
Formwork Moulds: Square timber or steel moulds are used to hold the concrete and
bottles in their exact geometric positions during casting until the blocks harden
(Adebiyi et al., 2024).
Binding Wire: Standard steel binding wire is used to tie and hold the bottles in place
before pouring the concrete. This stops the smooth, lightweight plastic bottles from
shifting or floating to the top when the wet concrete is poured (Safinia & Alkalbani,
2016).
3.4 Specimen Preparation and Construction
The practical work starts with sorting and filling the PET bottles. We only select bottles that
are uniform in size and free from dents or punctures (Sharma, 2017). After cleaning and
drying them, dry river sand is poured into the bottles in three stages. To make sure there
are no weak air pockets, each layer is rammed tightly using 25 blows of a standard tamping
rod (Rajakumari et al., 2017). Once fully compacted, the bottles are tightly capped. We then
do a quick quality check by checking the weight and rigidity to ensure the plastic has
effectively become a solid "eco-brick."
For the binding matrix, a standard 1:3:6 concrete mix (one part cement, three parts sharp
sand, six parts granite) is used. This mix ratio has been proven effective for projects
incorporating waste fillers (Omisande et al., 2024). A water-cement ratio of 0.5 to 0.6 is
maintained so the mix is workable but not overly watery, which could cause the bottles to
float.
The casting happens in rigid moulds measuring 450 mm × 225 mm × 225 mm, oiled lightly
on the inside so the blocks come out smoothly. The sand-filled bottles are laid horizontally
inside the mould. This horizontal arrangement isn't random; empirical tests by Adebiyi et al.
(2024) show that horizontal placement creates better lateral resistance against vertical
loads than vertical placement. The fresh concrete is poured in layers and rodded to
eliminate trapped air. After 24 hours of initial setting, the blocks are demoulded and cured
in water for the standard 28 days to hit their design strength.
Once cured, these individual blocks are assembled into larger modular wall panels using a
1:3 cement-sand mortar joint. We lay them in staggered courses to exactly mimic the wall
thickness and bonding pattern of the Yahaya Ahmed case study house, giving us a realistic
test subject for our thermal, ballistic, and load-bearing experiments.
3.5 Experimental Testing Procedures
3.5.1 Compressive Strength Testing
We will test the compressive strength following ASTM C140 standards. To ensure the data
is statistically sound, three specimens for each setup will be crushed at 7 days and 28 days
of curing. The blocks are placed in a Universal Testing Machine (UTM), which gradually
applies a heavy axial load until the block cracks or fails completely. The machine records the
maximum failure load in kilonewtons (kN), which we will divide by the block's cross-
sectional area to get the compressive strength in N/mm². We will then compare these
results against solid sandcrete control blocks and check if they meet the minimum ASTM
C90 structural requirements for masonry.
3.5.2 Thermal Performance Testing
To test how well the walls handle the Northern heat, we will use the Hot Box Test method.
This involves building a small insulated chamber where our bottle-brick panel acts as the
main exterior wall (Kim et al., 2019). We will attach thermocouples (temperature sensors)
to both the inside and outside of the wall. By applying a steady heat source to the outside
and tracking how the inside temperature reacts over time, we can calculate the thermal
transmittance (U-value in W/m²K). We will then check this U-value against ASHRAE 90.1
standards to see if the wall truly provides adequate thermal comfort for hot, semi-arid
climates.
3.5.3 Ballistic Resistance Testing
Because of the safety rules in a university environment, we are doing a scaled, controlled
impact test. The cured wall panel will be secured and subjected to high-velocity projectile
impacts from a set distance, referencing benchmarks like the NIJ Standard-0108.01 or UL
752 where possible. After impact, we will measure the depth of penetration, check how the
cracks spread, look for spalling (debris flying off the back), and see if the wall is still
standing. The theory is that the compacted sand inside the yielding plastic shell will absorb
the kinetic shock just like a military sandbag bunker (Carson, 2017; Shatskyi et al., 2021).
The results here will scientifically prove or debunk the "bulletproof" claims made about the
Kaduna case study house.
3.5.4 Environmental Impact Assessment
Instead of lab tests, the environmental impact will be calculated using a desk-based Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA). We will calculate exactly how many PET bottles are removed from
the environment per square metre of wall, and scale that up to a full residential building.
Furthermore, we will calculate the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions saved by avoiding the
production of traditional cement blocks, using standard CO₂ emission factors. The overall
drop in embodied energy (measured in MJ/kg) will be pulled from the University of Bath’s
Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) Database. This will prove the method's value to
Nigeria’s circular economy (UNIDO, 2021).
3.6 Cost Analysis
3.6.1 Thesis Execution Cost
Below is the estimated budget to actually carry out the physical casting and testing for this
project. The unit rates reflect the current market prices in the Biu and Maiduguri area for
the 2024/2025 academic session.
Item Specification Qty Unit Cost (₦) Total (₦)
PET plastic bottles 1.5L, post- 1,000 15.00 15,000.00
consumer
River sand 50kg bags 30 1,000.00 30,000.00
Ordinary Portland Cement Grade 42.5N, 10 9,000.00 90,000.00
50kg bags
Coarse aggregate/granite Crushed, per 2 15,000.00 30,000.00
tonne
Timber for moulds Square profile, 10 4,000.00 40,000.00
lengths
Binding wire Standard steel, 1 15,000.00 15,000.00
rolls
Concrete mixing labour Per day 10 5,000.00 50,000.00
UTM compressive testing Per specimen 18 2,000.00 36,000.00
Thermal testing equipment Setup and 1 50,000.00 50,000.00
rental
Transportation Biu/Maiduguri 1 100,000.00 100,000.00
area
Printing and Binding and 1 20,000.00 20,000.00
documentation reporting
Miscellaneous/ 10% of sub- 1 47,600.00 47,600.00
contingency total
GRAND TOTAL ₦523,600.00
Note: The total estimated budget is ₦523,600.00. However, prices for cement and
transportation fluctuate heavily based on fuel costs in Borno State, so these figures are subject
to minor market variations.
3.6.2 Comparative Construction Cost Analysis
To see if this makes financial sense on a large scale, a cost comparison was done for building
the external walls of a standard 180 m² three-bedroom bungalow. We compared the sand-
filled bottle method against standard 9-inch (225 mm) hollow sandcrete blocks using
current Northern Nigerian labour and material rates.
Cost Component Sand-Filled Bottle Units Standard 225mm
(₦) Sandcrete (₦)
Walling material cost per 1,000.00 5,000.00
m²
Mortar/binding cost per m² 1,500.00 2,500.00
Labour cost per m² 1,000.00 2,000.00
Total estimated wall cost 630,000.00 1,710,000.00
Percentage cost -63.16% Baseline
difference
The data shows a massive 63.16% drop in construction costs when you replace sandcrete
blocks with eco-bricks. This happens mostly because the main building blocks (the PET
bottles) are scavenged from waste for almost nothing. For low-income families in Northern
Nigeria, this breaks down a huge financial barrier to owning a home. This lines up perfectly
with Fatima and Sharma (2017), who estimated that bottle houses cost about a third of a
normal concrete structure.
3.7 Data Analysis Approach
All the quantitative data we pull from the UTM machine and Hot Box Tests will be recorded
and tabulated using spreadsheet software. The results will be laid out as averages (means)
alongside their standard deviations to account for any slight differences between the tested
blocks. The average compressive strength will be judged strictly against ASTM C90 and BS
2028 standards to see if they pass the code. The U-values from the thermal test will be
cross-checked with ASHRAE 90.1 benchmarks.
For the ballistic tests, the data will be a bit more qualitative—we are looking at the depth of
the bullet hole, the cracking patterns, and overall survival of the wall, measured against NIJ
Standard-0108.01. The environmental impact will be presented in hard numbers: bottles
saved, CO₂ reduced, and energy conserved, referencing the ICE Database. Finally, all costs
are tracked in Naira (₦) to show the exact percentage saved.
Chapter Four will present the final results and discussions derived from all these
experimental setups.