ECSTASY SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

INTEGRATED SCIENCE NOTES

Topic 1: Introduction to Science

a) Science is an organized body of knowledge acquired through inquiry.

b) Science is a continuous process of investigating and experimenting through

which people gain verifiable knowledge.

c) Science is the method of obtaining knowledge through careful observation and

experimentation.

Reasons Why We Study Science

i) We study science to eradicate ignorance, superstition, and other negative cultural

practices bedeviling our society. B2

Scientific Attitudes and Ethics

Every scientist is expected to have basic attitudes and ethics to function properly.
Among them are ;

i) Creativity

ii) Curiosity

iii) Objectivity

iv) Integrity

v) Open-minded

vi) Perseverance

Branches of Science

Science has been broadly divided into two branches namely; Natural Science and
Applied Science

A. Natural Science - It is a broad field of science that focuses on the study of the
natural world and phenomena through empirical and scientific methods. It
encompasses various branches such as biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and
Earth sciences. Natural scientists seek to understand, describe, and predict the
workings of the physical universe and living organisms using systematic
observation, experimentation, and data analysis. This field plays a crucial role in
expanding our knowledge of the natural world and is the foundation for many
technological advancements.

Biology - It is the scientific study of living organisms which includes both plants
and animals.

Chemistry - it is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of

substances or matter and changes they undergo.

Physics - It is the study of matter and energy and how they interact with each other.

Geology -This involves the study of the origin, structure, and composition of the
earth

Meteorology - This is the study of the processes and changes occurring in the
atmosphere.

Astronomy - This is the study of the objects in the universe which includes
studying stars, planets, comets, and galaxies.

Oceanology - This is the study of oceans, which includes their composition,

movement, organisms, and processes

B. APPLIED SCIENCES - This is the application of facts, laws, and theories

which includes the study of stars, planets, and comets, enacted from natural
sciences to solve problems of mankind. Examples are;

i) Pharmacy: This involves the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs.

ii) Nursing: - The process of providing care for the sick or infirm.

iii) Material Science: it is an interdisciplinary subject spanning the physics and

chemistry of matter, engineering application, and manufacturing processes.

iv) Agriculture - This involves the study of the mode of cultivating or growing
crops and rearing animals for human and material consumption.
v) Information Communication Technology (I.C.T) - This involves the storage,
retrieval, manipulation, transmission, or receipt of digital data.

TECHNOLOGY

Technology may be defined in several ways, which the following:

1. lt is the application of scientific knowledge in practical way. Natural science

involves the discovery and establishment.

2. It is the practical use of scientific discovery in industry.

3. It is the process by which scientific knowledge and discoveries are applied to

solve problems.

Importance of Science and Technology

Science and technology are crucial for several reasons:

1. Advancing Knowledge: Science helps us understand the natural world,

uncovering the secrets of the universe, and expanding human knowledge.

2. Innovation: Technology drives innovation, leading to the development of new

products, processes, and solutions that improve our quality of life.

3. Economic Growth: Technological advancements can boost economic growth

by creating new industries, generating jobs, and increasing productivity.

4. Healthcare: Science and technology have revolutionized healthcare, leading to

improved diagnostics, treatments, and overall well-being.

5. Environmental Sustainability: They play a vital role in addressing

environmental challenges, such as climate change and pollution, through
innovative solutions.

6. Communication: Technology has revolutionized communication, making it

faster and more accessible globally, and connecting people across distances.

7. Education: Science and technology enhance educational experiences, making

learning more interactive and accessible.
8. National Security: They are critical for national defense, enabling advanced
weaponry, surveillance, and cyber security measures.

9. Space Exploration: Scientific discoveries and technological advancements

enable space exploration, expanding our understanding of the universe.

10. Quality of Life: Science and technology contribute to a higher quality of life
by improving transportation, energy efficiency, and entertainment options.

Negative EFFECTS OF Science and Technology

While science and technology bring numerous benefits, they also have some
negative effects:

1. Environmental Impact: Industrialization and technological advancement can

lead to pollution, resource depletion, and habitat destruction, contributing to
environmental problems like climate change.

2. Job Displacement: Automation and artificial intelligence can replace human

jobs, causing unemployment and socioeconomic inequalities.

3. Ethical Concerns: Advances in technology raise ethical questions about privacy,

surveillance, genetic engineering, and the use of AI in decision-making.

4. Health Issues: Over-reliance on technology can lead to physical health

problems like screen addiction, sedentary lifestyles, and mental health issues such
as cyber-bullying and internet addiction.

5. Security Risks: Technology can be vulnerable to cyber-attacks, leading to data

breaches, identity theft, and national security threats.

6. Social Isolation: Excessive use of technology, particularly social media, can

lead to social isolation and reduced face-to-face interactions.

7. Economic Disparities: The benefits of technology are not evenly distributed,

leading to disparities in access to education, healthcare, and economic
opportunities.

8. Loss of Privacy: Advances in surveillance technology and data collection can

erode personal privacy and civil liberties.
9. Dependence on Technology: Over reliance on technology can make societies
vulnerable in the event of system failures, power outages, or cyber-attacks.

10. Cultural Erosion: Technology can contribute to the erosion of traditional

cultures and values, as it promotes globalization and homogenization of cultures.

The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigation and inquiry used by

scientists to understand natural phenomena, make observations, form hypotheses,
conduct experiments, and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence. It
consists of several key steps:

1. Observation: The process starts with making observations about a specific

phenomenon or problem in the natural world. These observations can be
qualitative or quantitative.

2. Question: Based on the observations, a scientific question is formulated. This

question should be specific and testable.

3. Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or educated guess that

proposes a possible answer to the question. It should be based on existing
knowledge and lead to testable predictions.

4. Prediction: The hypothesis generates predictions about what should happen

under certain conditions or during experiments.

5. Experiment: Controlled experiments are designed and conducted to test the

predictions and gather empirical data. Experiments involve manipulating variables
to see their effect on the phenomenon of interest.

6. Data Collection: During the experiment, data is collected systematically and

recorded. This data can be in the form of measurements, observations, or other
relevant information.

7. Analysis: The collected data is analyzed statistically and qualitatively to

determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis.

8. Conclusion: Based on the analysis of the data, scientists conclude the validity of
the hypothesis. If the data supports the hypothesis, it may become a theory or law.
If not, scientists may refine the hypothesis or develop new ones.
9. Communication: The findings and conclusions are communicated through
scientific publications, presentations, and discussions with the scientific
community and the public.

10. Replication: To ensure the reliability of scientific results, other researchers

should replicate the experiments independently to verify the findings.

Topic 2: Diversity of Living and Non-Living Things

Everything around us is classified as living things and non-living things.

A. Living things are things that perform life activities. They have cells that can
carry out life processes. Examples are fowls, humans, trees, goats, cow, rabbit, etc.

B. Non-living things are things that do not perform life activities. They do not
have life and are unable to perform life activities. Examples are; Stones, books,
bags, pens, cars, etc.

Life Processes

Life Processes are activities that distinguish living things from non-living things. It
is shortened to MRS GREN. That is; Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth,
Reproduction, Excretion, and Nutrition.

1. Movement - It is the process in which living things can move parts of their body
or able to move the whole body from one position to another. Movement in which
the organism moves the whole body from one place to another is termed
Locomotion. Movement in which the organism stands in one place and moves part
of the body is known as Articulation.

Reasons Why Organisms Move

i) To find shelter

ii) To find food

iii) To escape danger

iv) To find a mate or companions

v) To avoid unfavorable conditions

2. Respiration - It is the breakdown of food substances in the cells to produce
energy.

3. Sensitivity/Irritability - Organisms can respond to stimuli or react to changes in

the environment.

4. Growth - It is the irreversible increase in size or mass in the body due to the
addition of new protoplasm.

5. Excretion - It is the removal of metabolic waste products from the body.

Examples are; Carbon dioxide, urea, amino acid, etc.

6. Reproduction - It is the process by which living things produce new individuals

or offspring of their kind.

7. Nutrition - It is the process by which living organisms obtain or make their food.

Differences between Living Things and Non-Living Things

a) Living Things have protoplasm but nonliving things do not have protoplasm

b) Living Things can move on their own but Non-Living Things can only move
when pulled or pushed.

c) Living Things respond to stimuli but Non-Living Things do not respond to

external stimuli.

d) Living Things undergo respiration to release energy but Non Living Things do
not undergo respiration.

e) Living Things excrete but Non-Living Things do not excrete

f) Living Things undergo self-reproduction but Non-Living Things do not undergo

self-reproduction.

Differences between Plants and Animals

1. Cell Wall - Plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, which provides
structural support, while animal cells lack this feature.
2. Mobility - Most animals are mobile, and capable of moving from one place to
another, whereas plants are typically rooted in place and don't exhibit significant
mobility.

3. Nutrition - Plants are autotrophic, meaning they produce their food through
photosynthesis, using sunlight and carbon dioxide. Animals are heterotrophic and
rely on consuming other organisms for nutrients.

4. Reproduction - Plants often have both sexual and asexual reproduction methods,
including seeds, spores, and vegetative propagation. Animals usually reproduce
sexually.

5. Sensory Organs - Animals generally have well-developed sensory organs, such

as eyes, ears, and a nervous system, to perceive and respond to their environment.
Plants lack these structures.

6. Respiration - Animals typically respire by taking in oxygen and releasing

carbon dioxide. Plants respire as well but mainly during the night, and they also
photosynthesize during the day, producing oxygen.

7. Life Span - Plants can have relatively long life spans, ranging from a few years
to centuries. Most animals have shorter life spans.

8. Response to Stimuli - Animals can respond to external stimuli more actively

and quickly due to their nervous systems. Plants respond to environmental changes
but at a slower pace and without a nervous system.

Classification

Biological Classification refers to the sorting out of living things and putting them
into groups based on their common characteristics.

The branch of Biology concerned with the principle of classification is called

taxonomy. A person involved in the study of taxonomy is called a Taxonomist.

Importance of Classification

i) Biological Classification helps in the easy identification of organisms

ii) Biological Classification makes the study of organisms easier.

iii) It enhances communication among biologists or scientists.

iv) It shows relationships among organisms based on similarities and differences.

v) It brings out the potential uses of living and non-living things.

vi) It helps to make predictions about individual living organisms.

Famous Taxonomist

Famous Taxonomists; Aristotle, John Ray, and Carolus Linnaeus.

A. Aristotle

-He was a Greek Philosopher and Biologist who introduced, the first system of
classification which was used for about 200 years.

- He classified living things into plants and animals.

- Aristotle classified animals on three bases namely; the way they move, their
habitat, and whether they have red blood or not.

- Aristotle, classified plants according to appearance and sizes of plants

How Aristotle Classified Animals

1. Based on the way they move, he classified animals into two namely;

i) Animals that hop or run or walk.e.g frog, dog, man, etc

ii) Animals that fly e.g. birds, bats etc.

2. Based on the habitat, he classified animals into two namely;

i) Animals that live on land e.g lizard, dog, man, etc.

ii) Animals that live in water e.g. fish, crocodiles, etc.

3. Based on whether they have red blood cells or not, he classified animals into
two classes namely

i) Animals with red blood e.g. fowl, cat, lion, etc

ii) Animals without red blood e.g. insects’ crabs, snails, etc
 How Aristotle Classified Plants

Aristotle Classified Plants according to their appearance.

- He classified large plants as trees

- He classified medium plants as shrubs

- He classes small size plants as herbs

Trees - A tree is a perennial woody with a distinct single stem or trunk. Examples
are the Odum tree and coconut tree

Shrub - A shrub is a perennial woody plant short with multiple stems growing
from the same point just above the soil.

Herb - Herb is a soft succulent tissue plant. For example talinum, okro, and tomato

B. John Ray (1627-1705)

John Ray was a British naturalist who classified

Living things based on species of organisms. Thus

The idea of species was introduced by John Ray.

Species is defined as a group of organisms with similar characteristics and can

interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

C. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)

-Linnaeus was a Swedish biologist who used the natural system of classification on
similarities and differences shown by living, organisms.

-He put organisms with similar structures into the same group.

-He later introduced the binomial nomenclature of classification.

- Nomenclature simply means naming of living things.

Linnaeus' classification is what is being used today, referred to as a natural

system of classification.
-He classified living things into the hierarchy of taxa (groups) as kingdom, phylum,
class, order, family, genus, and species.

Binomial system of nomenclature

The Binomial system of nomenclature or naming is a scientific system of naming

organisms with two (Latin) names indicating the genus and the species of the
organism. The first name is the genus (plural is genera) to which the organism
belongs and the second name is the species to which the organism belongs.

·The first name begins with a block letter and the second name begins with a small
letter. Both names must be underlined separately or should be in Italics

KINGDOM→PHYLUM/DIVISION→CLASS→ORDER→FAMILY→GENU
S→SPECIES

NOTE: It will be helpful to learn the above easily by picking the first letter of each
and putting them in a sentence like this: Kwaku Poku Can Order Five Ghanaian
Students

Plan of the system of classification

This system has seven (7) major labels or ranks or taxa. Thus taxonomists classify
living things into seven major taxa/ranks. These are: Kingdom →Phylum →Class
→Order →Family →Genus →Species.

Ranks are arranged in a graded fashion, the first being the largest or the highest.
Thus the Kingdom is the largest taxon or rank or label followed by the phylum,
class, order, etc. with species being the smallest rank.

NOTES

i) In the classification of plants the taxon "Division" is used in place of "phylum"

ii) Similarities within a group increase from the largest to the smallest (top to
bottom) For example; likeness is more pronounced at the species level and is least
at the kingdom level.
ii) Organisms at the species level are able to mate and produce offspring more
easily than at the genus level. Mating at the kingdom level is not likely to be
possible in italics

A. Kingdom

Organisms in a kingdom may have some characteristics in common. For example,

all plants belong to the kingdom Plantae because they have a lot in common e.g.
cellulose cell walls. There are five main kingdoms for living things. They are;
Kingdom Animalia, Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Protoctista, and
Kingdom Prokaryotae/monera

B. Phylum

It is a small group within a kingdom. In the phylum, the organisms may have a
common body plan. For example, animals that have backbones may be put in a
different phylum from those without backbones but may belong to the same
kingdom.

C. Class

This is also a group within a phylum. Organisms in a class have more common
characteristics than they have in a phylum. For example are; lizards and fish have
backbones so they are in the same phylum but belong to different classes because
they differ in many characteristics.

D. Order

It is a sub-group of a class. Organisms in an order look more alike than they do in a

class. For example, man and dog are in the same class. Mammalia (mammals) but
they belong to different orders,

E. Family

It is a subset within an order. In a family organisms look more alike than in order,
For example, the toad and frog belong to the same order but have differences and
so belong to different families

F. Genus
This is under sub-grouping within the family. Here organisms in the genus have
similar features and are very much alike but they cannot interbreed.

G. Species

·Species is the smallest and lowest rank or taxon in the hierarchy of classification
of living things. Species are the sub-divisions or sub-groups of the genus. Species
are made up of organisms that are very closely alike in structure and function such
that they can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. For example, all human beings
irrespective of color (white or black) belong to the same species and, hence can
mate to produce fertile offspring. An example of a species is the sapiens for human
beings. An example of a species is the may for maize.

The Kingdoms

In grouping living things, there are five main

Kingdoms namely;

Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Fungi

Kingdom Protoctista

Kingdom Prokaryotae

1. Kingdom Animalia

This includes all animals e.g. man, fish, worms, apes, monkeys, toad, insects,birds,
lizards, cats, molluscs (snails, octopus)

Their characteristics are

-Have nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

-Have no cell wall.

-Multicellular organisms.
-Rely on external sources for food.(Non-Photosynthetic) hence lack chlorophyll in
their cells reproduce by means of fusion of male and female gametes

-Eukaryotic

2. Kingdom Plantae

This kingdom houses all plants. They include all monocots and dicots e.g. maize,
mango, moss,, fern, conifers, liverworts, flowers, and trees.

They have the following common characteristics:

-Multicellular organisms

-Have chloroplast used to manufacture their

-Own food by photosynthesis

-Have cell walls made up of cellulose

-Have a nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane

-Eukaryotic

3. Kingdom Fungi

Fungi include fungus, moulds, and mushrooms. Examples are:

Mushrooms e.g. Agricus

Moulds and Mildews e.g. rhizopus

Parasitic fungi e.g. Athlete foot, ringworm.

They have the following common characteristics

-They are non-mobile multicellular organisms.

-Have a definite nucleus.

-Vegetative body is called mycelium

-Body made of branching tubes/hyphae

- No chlorophyll hence depending on external

-Food sources (non-photosynthetic).

-Reproduced by means of spore formation.

-Cell wall made of chitin/outer wall, not made of cellulose

-Have no roots, stems and leaves.

-Eukaryotic

4. Kingdom Protoctista

These are not plants, fungi, or animals. They include algae and protozoans.
Examples are:

Protozoans-amoeba, paramecium, plasmodium, Spirogyra, Euglena, Trypanosoma.

Algae-green algae, slime mould.

Their characteristics include

· Many are unicellular with few multicellular

-Species which do not show a high degree of differentiation (are organisms made
up of one or few cells).

-Have normal cell organelles but no tissue or organ.

-Have nucleus which is enclosed with nuclear membrane.

-Eukaryotic

5. Kingdom Prokaryotae

They include bacteria (bacterium) and other blue-green algae. Their characteristics
include;

Microscopic

Unicellular organisms

Have no definite nucleus

Have cell wall

Have no membrane bound organelles/ have

No membrane around the nucleus.

Topic 3: SKELETAL SYSTEM

Mammals belong to the most advanced class of animals among both vertebrates
(animals with a backbone) and invertebrates (animals without a backbone). This is
because they have highly developed brains and are warm-blooded. Examples of
mammals include; man, monkeys, bats, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.

The human skeleton of mammals is made up of both fused and individual bones.
The fused bones include the pelvis and the cranium. The adult's skeleton consists
of 206 bones.

The longest and heaviest bone in the body is the femur (found above the kneecap)
and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear. Muscles are attached to bones
directly or using the tendon.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAMMALS

i) Mammals have hair or fur on their bodies.

ii) Mammals have skeletons or bones to which are attached muscles for movement

iii) Mammals have two sets of teeth (milk teeth and permanent teeth) which appear
in succession.

iv) The teeth of mammals correspond to the food they eat.

v) Sense organs and brains are more developed in mammals than in any other
animal.

vi) In mammals, the thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by the
diaphragm.

vii) Mammals reproduce by the process known as viviparity (bringing forth living
young rather than eggs)

viii) Female mammals suckle their young ones.

ix) Most mammals have external ears with funnel-like pinnae.

Mammals' skeletal tissues are made up of bone and cartilage.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BONE AND CARTILAGE

BONES CARTILAGE

 Tough  Soft and flexible

 Cannot bend  Can bend

 Vascular (has vessels)  Non-vascular

 Porous  Non-porous

 Has nerve supply  Has no nerve supply

 Has bone marrow  Has no bone marrow

 For protection, movement,  For reducing friction, supporting

Production of blood cells and respiratory tract, and act as a shock
gives shape. absorber.

DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN SKELETON

ENDOSKELETON- This is possessed by mammals’ e.g. man, reptiles e.g. lizard,
amphibian e.g. toad, birds e.g. domestic fowl, etc.

EXOSKELETON- This is possessed by insects e.g. grasshoppers and beetle,

mollusks e.g. snail, octopus, etc.

FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN SKELETON

i) For Support- The skeleton supports the soft part of the body. Bone gives
support to the body during movement.

ii) For Movement- The skeleton is jointed to allow movement.

iii) For Protection - The skeleton protects more delicate parts of the body e.g
cranium protects the brain, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs, the vertebral
column surrounds the spinal cord.
iv) For Production- The skeleton provides red and white blood cells in the bone
marrow

THE AXIAL SKELETON - This comprises the skull, the vertebral column (the
backbone), and the thoracic bone.

A. THE SKULL- The skull is made up of small bones fused to form the cranium
(brain box), the snout (or face), and the mandible (or lower jaw). Only the
mandible or lower jaw is movable.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKULL

i) It protect the brain found within the cranium.

ii) It protects some sensory organs such as the eye, inner ear, tongue, and nose.

iii) It determines the shape of the head.

iv) It provides a surface for the attachment of the muscles.

DIAGRAM OF THE SKULL

B. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

- This is also known as the backbone.

-It is found on the dorsal side of mammals.

-It runs from the head to the sacrum (waste) in man and the caudal in mammals
with tails.

- The vertebral column is made up of small bones called vertebrae.

-The vertebrae are arranged end to end to form a hollow tube through which the
spinal cord passes.

-The vertebrae are arranged such that they are separated from one another by pads
of fibers and cartilages called intervertebral disc

-Each intervertebral disc serves as a shock absorber between any two vertebrae.

- The vertebral column consists of five sets of irregular bones. These five sets of
bones are; Cervical vertebrae (neck bone), thoracic bone (chest region), lumbar
vertebrae (upper abdominal region), sacral vertebrae (lower abdomen region), and
caudal vertebrae is the Atlas and the second bone is the Axils.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FIVE SETS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

i) Cervical Vertebrae (neck bone)

- It supports the neck.

- It carries the skull

- Allows movement of the head such as nodding and rotation.

ii) Thoracic Vertebrae (Chest Region)

- Articulates with ribs

- Provides neural spine for the attachment of back and shoulder

- Supports the head, neck, and shoulder regions of the body.

iii) Lumbar Vertebrae

- Provide support for the upper and half of the body

- Provides attachment for abdominal muscle

iv) Sacral Vertebrae

- Together with the pelvic girdle gives rigidity and strength.

- Together with the pelvic girdle gives support to the legs.

v) Caudal vertebrae (Tail Region)

- Provide support and flexibility to tail

-Plays vital role in balance and locomotion in reptiles, birds and some mammals.

FUNCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN IN GENERAL

i) They provide a surface for attachment of the body muscles

ii) They protect the spinal cord

iii) They give support or provide rigidity at the trunk.

iv) They provide joints for articulation with other bones (e.g. skull, ribs, pelvic and
pectorial girdle)

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VERTEBRAE BONES

The characteristics of the generalized vertebrae are;

a. Centrum

- Forms the floor for the neural canal and provides rigidity to bones

- Serves as point of attachment of successive vertebrae

b. Neural Canal/Spinal Cord

- Provides the passage for the spinal cord

c. Neural Spine

- Provides surface for the attachment of muscles

d. Facets (zygapophyses)
- For an articulation of successive vertebrae

e. Neural Arch

- For the attachment of muscles

-Forms the roof of the neural canal and provides rigidity to the bones.

f. Transverse Process

-For the attachment of muscles.

DIAGRAM OF A GENERALIZED /TYPICAL VERTEBRAE

C. THE THORACIC BONE

The thoracic bone consists of two main parts names; Ribs and Sternum.

Functions of the Ribs

i) The ribs together with the rib cage protect the lungs and the heart.

ii) The ribs assist in the mechanism of breathing by being moved up and down by
the intercostal muscle

The function of the sternum

It protects the vital organs (heart, lungs, and connecting blood vessels) from
physical damage.

THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE

Thoracic vertebrae are the twelve vertebral segments that make up the thoracic
spine. These structures have very little motion because they are firmly attached to
the ribs and sternum (breastbone).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A GENERALIZED BONE AND A

THORACIC VERTEBRAE
 GENERALIZED THORACIC BONE
VERTEBRAE

 Centrum is large  Centrum is small

 Neutral spine is large  Neutral spine is small

 Neutral canal is large  Neutral canal is small

 Small transverse process  Large transverse process

 Has facet for attachment  Absence of facets for

to ribs attachment to ribs

 Found in the abdominal  Found in the chest region

region

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

This skeleton is made up of

a. Limb girdles which are pectoral girdles and

b. Pelvic girdle.

PECTORAL GIRDLES

This is attached to the upper part of the vertebral column. That is the top of the
chest by ligament and muscles.

The pectoral girdle consists of two halves with each consisting of scapular
(shoulder bone), and clavicle (collar bone)

The main function of the pectoral girdle is that, it attaches the arm to the rest of the
skeleton and allows them to swing freely.

FUNCTION OF SCAPULAR

i) It provides movable firm support to the arm

ii) It provides support of attachment of the shoulder muscle

DIAGRAM OF SCAPULAR NEXT

3PELVIC GIRDLE

Pelvic girdle is the waist bone consisting of two halves fused together

It is linked to a pair of hind limbs (leg)

Each of the halves of the pelvic girdle consists of three bones.

These bones are ilium, ischium and pubis. The obturator foramen serves as a
passage for the blood vessels and nerves. The acetabulum is the cavity into which
the head of femur fits.

DIAGRAM OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

 Functions of the Pelvic Girdle

i) Pelvic girdle protects vital organs of the body such as the female reproductive
organ.

ii) It gives support to the hind limbs and articulates with the hind limbs for
movement.

iii) It supports the body’s weight

iv) It provides a surface for the attachment of muscles.

v) It provides openings for the attachment of the blood vessels.

JOINT- This is the point where two or more bones meet.

TYPES OF JOINTS

A joint is broadly grouped into two namely; Immovable joints and movable joints.

IMMOVABLE JOINTS – These joints are tightly fixed together to prevent

possible movements. The bones in these joints are in direct contact with each other
and are fused together. Examples of immovable joints are; sutures which are
between the skull or cranium and the pelvic girdle.
MOVABLE JOINTS – These joints allow some possible degree of movement of
the relevant part of the body. The bones in these joints are not in direct contact
with each other but are held closely together by ligaments ( a short band or tough,
flexible fibrous connective tissues that connects bones or cartilage or holds joint
together) and muscles. Examples of movable joints are; shoulder joints, Neck
joints, Hip Joints, Wrist joints, elbow joints, ankle joints, knee joints, and lower
joints or mandible.

A typical movable joint has the following; Bone, cartilage, ligament, synovial fluid,
and synovial membrane

DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL MOVABLE JOINT

FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL MOVABLE

JOINTS.

Synovial fluid - It lubricates the bones or enables the bones to move over each
other smoothly.

Synovial membrane - It produces synovial fluid.

Ligament - It holds the bones together at the movable joint.

Cartilage - It acts as a cushion or lessens the effects of shocks when bones move
against each other.

CLASSIFICATION 0F MOVABLE JOINTS

Ball and Socket Joint – This joint allows movement in more than one plane. They
can be found in the hip and shoulder.

Hinge Joints – This joint allows movement in only one plane. Thus, at the elbow,
the forearm moves towards the shoulder in a hinge-like direction. The same applies
to the knee and leg. Hinge joints can be found in the knee and elbow.

Gliding Joints – This allows a limited sliding movement where the bones slide
smoothly over each other. They are found in the wrist, ankle, and the vertebral
column (backbone).

Pivotal Joints – These are the joints that allow nodding and limited rotation of the
head. They are the foundation of the neck.

THE PROCESS INVOLVED IN RAISING THE HUMAN ARM

In the process of raising the human arm, the biceps contract, and the triceps relax.

HOW MUSCLES OF THE ARM BRING ABOUT MOVEMENT.

- The biceps and triceps muscles are responsible for the movement of the arm.

- Contraction of the biceps and the relaxation of the triceps bend the arm

- In straightening the arm, the triceps contract and the biceps relax

- The biceps and the triceps act in pairs and they are antagonistic (against each
other)
Biceps contract and triceps relax Biceps relax and triceps
contract when you raise your arm.
When you bring your arm down.

233333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333432222222
222222222 Topic 4: Air Movement

Wind is air in motion. The movement of air is caused by differences in

temperature/pressure and it is felt by the wind.

Air moves from a place where the temperature is high to where the temperature is
low.

Wind that is caused by differences in temperature is known as convection or

Advection.

In the atmosphere, convection, and advection transfer heat from warmer regions to
cooler regions.
SEA BREEZE - is a phenomenon where relatively cooler air blows from the sea
to the land during the day to replace the land's warm rising air.

HOW SEA BREEZE OCCURS.

The air above the land is warmer than the air above the sea during the day.

This warm air rises and it is replaced by the cooler air above the sea. This process
causes the wind during the day to towards the land.

Air higher in the atmosphere completes the circulation. Hence sea breeze is
obtained as a result of a convection current.

LAND BREEZE - is a phenomenon where relatively cooler air blows from the
land to the sea during the night to replace the sea's warm rising.

HOW BREEZE OCCURS.

During the night, the air over the sea becomes warmer than the air above the land.
The warm air above the sea rises, which is then replaced by the cold air over the
land.

This causes the wind above the land during the night to move towards the sea. Air
higher in the atmosphere completes the circulation and hence a land breeze is
obtained. This happens due to convection currents.

Convection is defined as the wind caused by differences in temperature.

Applications of convection currents

i) Ventilation - Good ventilation in the house relies on the continuous circulation

of the convection air current.

ii) Land and sea breezes are the results of convection currents in nature.

iii) The domestic hot water system works on the connection of current principles.

iv) In radiation of motor cars to cool down running engines.

v) In the operations of refrigeration.

Air Masses - This is a large body of air that has relatively uniform temperature and
humidity characteristics.

The regions where air masses form are referred to as air mass source regions.

Types of Air Masses

a) Tropical Continental Air Mass- This is a type of air mass that is formed over a
warm land.

b) Tropical Maritime Air Mass- This is a type of air mass that is formed over a
warm sea.

c) Polar Continental Air Mass - This is a type of air mass that is formed over
cold land.

d) Polar Maritime Air Masses - This is a type of air mass that is formed over a
cold sea.

Effects of Air Masses

i) Air Masses causes acidic rain

ii) Air Masses spread pollution in the air

iii) Air Masses cause global warming

iv) Air Masses destroy the ozone layer

v) Air Masses destroy biodiversity.

vi) It causes siltation (Siltation, is water pollution caused by

particulate terrestrial classic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay)

STORM - A storm is a strong wind usually accompanied by rain, snow, and at

times lightning and thunder which occur as a result of the meeting of air masses at
low pressure with the wind.

Characteristics of Storm

The storm is associated with

i) Stormy winds

ii) Thunder

iii) Heavy Precipitation

iv) Rain

v) Lightning

Effects of Storm

i) Storm uproots trees and crops thereby causing a food shortage.

ii) Causes strong tides

iii) Increases siltation

iv) Can claim many lives

v) Can destroy properties.

vi) Disruption of air, land, and sea travels

Cyclones - This is defined as string storms that whirl while moving.

Differences between Air Mass and Storm

AIR MASSES STORM

i) It is a horizontal body of air i) It is a vertical movement of hot air

ii) It is a strong wind ii) It is a stronger wind

iii) It covers a large area iii) It is limited to a small area

iv) It moves from a region of high iv) It moves from a low-pressure area
pressure to a region of low pressure

v) They are classified according to v) They are classified according to their

the temperature and humidity of the strength and location.
location of their of region.
Tornadoes - This is defined as the smallest and the most violent weather
disturbance that occurs on the earth's surface.

TOPIC 5: NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is a very essential element such that life cannot exist without it. This is
because it is an essential component of all proteins. Although nitrogen exist
abundant in the atmosphere, plants cannot use it directly from the atmosphere

CHARACTERISTICS OF NITROGEN

i) Nitrogen is a major plant nutrient

ii) Nitrogen is an element

iii) Nitrogen is found in living things such as plants and animals.

iv) Nitrogen moves slowly between living things, dead things, the air, soil, and
water.

v) Nitrogen forms about 78% of the air in the atmosphere,

vi) It is an odorless gas.

USES OF NITROGEN IN PLANTS

i) Nitrogen gives plants their characteristic green color.

ii) Nitrogen encourages the vegetative growth of plants

iii) It regulates the utilization of phosphorus, potassium, and other nutrients by

plants.

iv) It promotes chlorophyll formation and therefore increases carbohydrate

synthesis

v) In cereals, it increases protein percentage as well as the plumpness of grains.

PROCESS BY WHICH NITROGEN IS ADDED OR IS FIXED IN THE

SOIL.

a) Nitrogen fixation
b) Nitrification

c) Ammonification

d) Thunderstorm/Lightning

e) Decay of dead organisms.

PROCESS BY WHICH NITROGEN IS LOST OR IS REMOVED FROM

THE SOIL.

i) Plant Growth - Plants use up nitrogen for growth

ii) Crop removal - Nitrogen is lost when crops are harvested.

iii) Soil Erosion - Nitrogen is lost when water washes away the topsoil

iv) Leaching - The nitrogen in the soil is washed down the soil out of reach of
plants' roots.

v) De-nitrification: This occurs when nitrogen in the form of nitrate is converted

into atmospheric nitrogen.

PROCESSES IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE

RETURN OF NITROGEN TO THE ATMOSPHERE

a) Denitrification

b) Anaerobic ammonia oxidation.

Nitrogen Cycle - This is the process by which nitrogen and its compounds are
being circulated in the environment. Or it is all the processes involved in adding
nitrogen to and removing nitrogen from the soil.

ORGANISMS INVOLVED IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE

i) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria or Azotobacter or Rhizobium

ii) Nitrifying bacteria or Nitrosomonas or Nitrobacter

iii) Lichen

iv) Fungi
EXPLANATION OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen can be introduced into the soil through various mechanisms. Bacteria
play a vital role in this process. Some of these bacteria reside in the soil, while
others are found in the roots of leguminous plants, such as beans and groundnuts.

These bacteria extract nitrogen from the air and transform it into nitrate through a
process called nitrogen fixation. Additionally, nitrogen can enter the soil through
lightning strikes and the application of fertilizers. Plants absorb the nitrate through
their roots and transfer it through the ecosystem via the food chain.

In plants, nitrogen exists in the form of proteins and nucleic acids. Animals
metabolize nitrogen when they consume plants. Upon the death of animals or the
excretion of waste, nitrogen is converted into ammonium. However, plants cannot
directly utilize ammonium, so it must undergo a process known as nitrification to
be converted into nitrate for plant consumption.

To complete the nitrogen cycle, it is necessary to return nitrogen to the atmosphere.

This is achieved through denitrification, which involves a different type of bacteria
and process. Denitrification enables the conversion of nitrate back into nitrogen
gas, which is released into the atmosphere.

Nitrification refers to the conversion of ammonia and nitrogen-based compounds

into nitrate by nitrifying bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas.

DE-NITRIFICATION - It is the reduction of nitrate in the soil to nitrogen gas by

denitrifying bacteria such as Planococcus.

IMPORTANCE OF NITROGEN CYCLE

i) Nitrogen cycle replaces lost nitrogen in the soil which increases soil fertility.

ii) Plants absorb nitrogen in the soil for proper growth.

iii) It releases nitrogen locked up in plants and animal tissues.

iv) It avoids the accumulation of foul-smelling in plants.

v) The amount of nitrous oxide has risen in the atmosphere as a result of
agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, feedlots, and some other industrial
purposes.

TOPIC 6: EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from the cell or tissues of
the body of an orgasm.

Metabolism refers to a chemical reaction that goes on in the cells of a living

organism.

Egestion is the removal of undigested and unabsorbed food material from the body
through the anus.

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN HUMANS

i) Excess water

ii) Carbon dioxide

iii) Bile pigment

iv) Nitrogenous waste e.g. Urea

v) Used hormones

vi) Cholesterol

vii) Excess mineral salts

viii) Used drugs

ix) Broken down alcohol etc.

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS IN PLANTS

i) Organic acid

ii) Alkaloids

iii) Gums
iv) Resins

v) Latex

vi) Tannis

vii) Excess salts

viii) Carbon dioxide.

FUNCTIONS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM

i) Collects water and filters fluids

ii) Removes and concentrates waste

iii) Returns substances for balance

iv) Eliminates waste from body.

ORGANS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM.

These are the organs responsible for the removal of waste metabolic products from
the body. They include;

i) Kidney

ii) Lungs

iii) Skin

iv) Liver.

A. Kidney - There are two kidneys found in the mammalian body. They are linked
to the urinary bladder by the ureter. The kidneys are responsible for the removal of
waste substances such as water, urea, mineral salts, uric acid, and other
nitrogenous compounds.

STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEYS

The internal structure of the kidneys has two main regions namely; the darker outer
region known as the cortex and the lighter inner region called the medulla.
A tough layer surrounding the cortex (darker region) is called the capsule. Each
kidney has millions of kidney tubules also known as nephrons. The nephron is the
basic functional unit of the kidney.

Each nephron consists of a cup-shaped Bowman's capsule which form a network of

blood capillaries called the glomerulus.

PARTS OF MAMMALIAN KIDNEY AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Outer Cortex (dark color) - It contains the Bowman's capsules and glomerular of
the nephrons. The dark color is due to the millions of blood capillaries of the
glomerular.

Inner Medullar (light color) - It contains the U-shaped Loop of Henle and the
collecting ducts.

Ureter - Peristaltic waves of contraction in the thin tube carry urine produced by
the kidney to the bladder.

Pyramid - The pyramids consist mainly of tubules that transport urine from the
cortical, or outer part of the kidney, where urine is produced, to the calyces, or cup-
shaped cavities in which urine collects before it passes through the ureter to the
bladder.

Medulla - The main function of the medulla is to regulate the concentration of

urine. The urine flows from the collecting ducts into the renal calyces and pelvis,
which undergo unidirectional peristaltic movements to allow drainage of the urine
into the downstream ureter and bladder.

Renal Artery - The renal arteries carry a large volume of blood from the heart to
the kidneys. The kidneys filter waste and excess fluid from the blood. We have two
renal arteries. The right renal artery supplies blood to the right kidney, while the
left renal artery sends blood to the left kidney.

Renal Vein - The main blood vessel that carries blood from the kidney and ureter
to the superior vena cava (a large vein that carries blood to the heart from the lower
part of the body)
 DIAGRAM OF THE

KIDNEY

The Human Urinary System

COMPONENTS OF THE NEPHRON AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

a) Glomerulus - It filters plasma to produce glomerular filtrate, which passes

down the length of the nephron tubule to form urine.
b) Bowman's Capsule - It surrounds the glomerular capillary loops and
participates in the filtration of blood from the glomerular capillaries. Bowman's
capsule also has a structural function and creates a urinary space through which
filtrate can enter the nephron and pass to the proximal convoluted tubule.

c) Proximal Convoluted Capsule - it is responsible for selective reabsorption of

useful metabolic substances (e.g. glucose, water, and amino acids ).

d) Loop of Henle - It is located in the medulla of the kidney or nephron. It is the

site for the absorption of water or nutrients in the filtrate.

e) Collecting duct - It regulates the amount of water lost through urine. It also
drains urine from the nephron.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NEPHRON

i) Glomerular filtration of water and solutes from the blood.

ii) Tubular re-absorption of water and conserved molecules back into the kidney

iii) Tubular secretion of ions and other waste products from surrounding capillaries
into the distal tubule.

FORMATION OF URINE

Urine is produced through Ultrafiltration and Selective Reabsorption in the kidneys.

Blood from the heart is filtered in the Bowman's capsule, producing filtrate with
water, glucose, salts, vitamins, and urea.

Glucose, salt ions, and water are reabsorbed in the convoluted tubules, leaving
waste materials that become urine.

Urine travels through the collecting duct to the bladder, then is emptied through the
urethra.

ULTRAFILTRATION- It is the first process involved in the formation of urine.

It involves the filtration of fluid from the blood in the nephron/bowman capsule
under pressure.
SELECTIVE RE-ABSORPTION: It is the second process of absorption into the
blood where useful metabolic substances like glucose and amino acids from the
glomerular filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule

DE-AMINATION: It is the removal of excess amino acids by the liver in the form
of urine.

B. THE MAMMALIAN SKIN

The mammalian skin is made up of two layers namely; the outer/upper layer called
the epidermis and the Inner/lower layer called demise.

EPIDERMIS

The epidermis consists of three regions namely; the Cornified or horny layer, the
granular layer, and the Malpighian layer.

i) Cornified /horny layer- This is the outermost epidermal layer of the skin,
comprised of flattened, lifeless cells that are constantly shed. It serves as a barrier
against microbial invasion and helps to minimize water loss from the body.

ii) Granular layer - This lies below the Cornified layer and consists of living cells.
It contains layers as it is continually peeled off. A substance called keratin (the
type of protein that makes up your hair, skin, and nails) is later deposited in them

iii) Malpighian layer situated as the innermost layefr of the epidermis, is

composed of cells undergoing active division. These cells produce melanin, the
pigment responsible for black skin color, and also serve to absorb ultraviolet
radiat,lion.

DERMIS

It is a layer of connective tissue with many collagen fibers and some elastic fibers.
It stores fats, and adipose tissues and insulates the body.

The dermis contains the following structures; hair follicles, sebaceous gland, sweat
gland or duct, nerve, blood capillary, adipose cell or tissues, and erector muscles.
a) Hair Follicle - A deep pit of the granular and amphibian layer where cells
multiply to form hair inside the follicle. It also contains hair papilla for the growth
of the hair due to the presence of blood vessels and nerves.

b) Sebaceous glands secret oily sebum to lubricate skin prevents the growth of
microbes on the skin. It also makes the hair waterproof by oiling it.

c) Sweat gland /duct- It absorbed salts and water from blood capillaries to
produce sweat for temperature regulation and excretion.

d) Nerve/fiber - It makes skin sensitive to touch, heat, and pressure.

e) Blood capillary - It supplies nutrients to the skin

f) Adipose cell or tissue - a lot contains fat cells for the storage of fat hence
insulating the body, especially from heat loss.

g) Erector muscles - It is responsible for the regulation of hair erection in the skin.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

i) For protection - The skin prevents the entry of pathogens into the body.

ii) For sensation - The skin contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat,
cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.

iii) For heat regulation - The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its
requirements, which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection,
and conduction.

iv) For control of evaporation - The skin provides a relatively dry and semi-
impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this function contributes to the massive
fluid loss in burns.

v) Water resistance- The skin acts as a water-resistant barrier so that essential

nutrients are not washed out of the body.

vi) For excretion - The sweat glands of the skin remove some urea, salts, and
water from the blood and excrete them like sweat.
vii) For the production of Vitamin D- The skin produces vitamin D when the
sunlight falls on the body.

HOMEOSTASIS - it is the process by which living organisms maintain a stable

internal environment. Examples are;

The skin regulates body temperature, osmoregulation maintains water balance, and
insulin and the liver control blood glucose levels. Homeostasis is achieved in the
following circumstances:

i) Abnormal body temperature fluctuations.

ii) High or low levels of glucose in the body.

iii) High or low blood pressure.

iv) Changes in body size.

v) Increased or decreased concentration of mineral salts in the blood.

Importance of Homeostasis

i) Homeostasis maintains a constant body internal environment

ii) It ensures independence from external restraints.

iii) It enables biochemical processes (chemical processes that occur in living

organisms) to take place.

How The Skin Functions as a Homeostatic Organ

The Skin regulates body temperature. The thermoreceptors in the brain detect high
or low body temperatures and respond accordingly as follows.

Mechanism of Cooling Overheating body in mammals.

- When the rate of perspiration increases or when sweat is excreted, it undergoes

evaporation.

- As sweat evaporates, the body experiences the process of latent heat of

vaporization.
- The capillaries or arteries that supply blood to the skin dilate (widen) allowing
more blood to flow to the skin's surface.

- The heat in the blood is then dissipated through radiation.

- The metabolic rate decreases, resulting in less heat production.

- The erector muscles in the skin relax, causing hairs to lie flat, thus reducing the
layer of stagnant air on the skin and accelerating the evaporation process.

Mechanism of heating cooled body in mammals

- During frigid temperatures, the body experiences a decrease in temperature.

- The blood vessels located in the skin undergo constriction.

- This constriction aids in the prevention of heat loss caused by radiation.

- The erector muscles of the hair contract, causing the hairs to stand.

- Subsequently, the standing hairs trap air to provide insulation for the body.

- Additionally, shivering may occur in order to produce heat within the body.

Advantages of Sweating in Mammals

i) It eliminates excess water and dissolved salts

ii) Evaporation of sweat cools body temperature

iii) it eliminates urea and metabolic liquid waste.

Diagram of the Mammalian Skin
C. LIVER This is the large and vital organ that performs both excretory and
homeostasis functions. As an excretory organ, it excretes bile pigment and excess
cholesterol.

As an excretory organ, it excretes bile pigment and excess cholesterol. The

pigment is a waste product of hemoglobin destruction. They are excreted into the
duodenum of the alimentary canal.

As a homeostatic organ,

i) It stores excess glucose as glycogen which can be converted back to glucose

when needed. This is a way of regulating blood sugar levels.

ii) It also deaminates excess amino acids to urea and glycogen.

iii) It stores fat which can be released when needed

iv) It breaks down erythrocytes and stores their iron for later use.

v) It stores vitamins A and D

Deamination is the removal of excess amino acids by the liver in the form of urea.
In sum, the liver has a central role in the metabolism of the body and carries out
several functions including the following;

a) Digestion - The liver digests food in the alimentary canal by producing bile
which emulsifies fat in the duodenum.

b) Storage - the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen in the gut and stores it as
food reserves.

c) Detoxification - poisonous substances make non-toxic and harmless e.g alcohol

and drugs are broken down by the liver.

d) Control of blood sugar level - excess glucose converted to glycogen and stored
but changed back to glucose.

e) Heat production - Chemical reactions occur in the liver to produce heat thereby
contributing to the regulation of body temperature.
f) Metabolism of fats - excess fats changed to glycerol and fatty acids.

g) Destruction of hormones - The liver destroyed hormones that enter it thus

stopping them from unlimited action

Diagram of the Liver

DISORDER ASSOCIATED WITH THE URINARY SYSTEM IN

HUMANS.

i) Bed Wetting -The release of urine when asleep. Avoid eating and drinking at the
night to prevent it.

ii) Urine Retention- This is caused by an enlarged prostate gland and kidney
stones.

iii) Kidney Stones- This blocks the exit of the urinary bladder. It can be treated by
Chemotherapy.
iv) Nephritis - Poisoned produced by germs is carried by the blood to the kidney
and damages the glomerular. It can be treated by surgical operation.

v) Weak Bladder-Treated by chemotherapy

vi) Enlarged Prostate gland. It can be treated by Chemotherapy.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS.

The main excretory products of plants are; water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
These excretory products come from the respiration and photosynthesis of the plant.
Respiration gives water and carbon dioxide whilst photosynthesis gives oxygen.

Unlike animals, plants do not have specialized organs for excretion. Waste
products are expelled through simple diffusion through the stomata or lenticels.

a) Excess water - This diffuses into air space and then through the stomata into the
atmosphere as water vapor.

b) Carbon dioxide - This is produced from photosynthesis during the day but
diffuses through the stomata during the night.

c) Oxygen - This is produced during photosynthesis out of the leaf cells into air
spaces and then through the stomata.

Apart from the above, plants produce other waste substances such as; tannins,
resins, gums, alkaloids etc

TOPIC 7: ROCKS

Rock is an aggregate of mineral deposits.

Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance often additionally

characterized by an exact crystal structure.

Importance of Rock

i) For construction purposes such as roads, buildings, etc.

ii) Aids in soil formation through the process of weathering.

iii) Rocks are sources of plant nutrients.

iv) Rocks are sources of minerals such as gold, steel, tin, silver, zinc, iron, and
aluminum

Types of Rocks

There are three main types of rocks namely,

a) Igneous Rock

b) Metamorphic Rock

c) Sedimentary Rock

A. Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rock is a rock formed from the cooling molten lava or magma erupting
from volcanoes. Examples are; granite, basalt, gabbro, quartz, diorite, obsidian,
Scotia, and pegmatite.

Formation of Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks form when molten rock cools and solidifies, either beneath the
Earth's surface, creating intrusive igneous rocks, or on the surface, forming
extrusive igneous rocks. This process, known as solidification or crystallization,
results in the formation of various types of igneous rocks identified above.
Examples are; granite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, and
Scotia.

Types of Igneous Rock

1. Intrusive igneous rocks - These also known as plutonic rocks, form beneath the
Earth's surface when molten rock, or magma, cools and solidifies slowly. As the
cooling process is gradual, intrusive rocks typically have larger mineral grains
compared to their extrusive counterparts. Common examples of intrusive igneous
rocks include granite, diorite, and gabbro.

2. Extrusion igneous rocks - These are the types of igneous rocks that solidify on
or above the Earth's surface. This type of igneous rock is formed from volcanic
activity. It cools fast resulting in in fine crystal formation. Examples of extrusive
igneous rocks are; basalt, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, and Scotia.
 Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

i) Igneous rocks do not occur in layers.

ii) It is both crystalline and none crystalline

iii) They are non-porous so water cannot percolate through them.

iv) They are not subject to erosion.

v) Igneous rock contains silica from 40-80%

vi) They do not contain fossils (remains of organic matter)

vii) They hardly react with acid.

B. Metamorphic rocks - It is a rock formed from changes in either a sedimentary

or igneous rock by the process known as metamorphism.

Mode of Formation of Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks - Metamorphic rocks are formed through the transformation

of pre-existing rocks (be they sedimentary, igneous, or other metamorphic rocks)
due to alterations in temperature, pressure, or mineral composition. These
alterations take place deep within the Earth's crust, typically at depths where heat
and pressure are elevated. This process, known as metamorphism, results in the re-
crystallization of minerals, giving rise to the creation of new minerals and a
distinctive texture in the rock. Some examples of metamorphic rocks include
gneiss, quartzite, slate, schist, marble, serpentine, and graphite.

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

i) They are dull and rough in appearance

ii) They are massive and hard

iii) They are very dense

iv) They may contain fossils

C. Sedimentary Rocks- These are rocks formed from settling or sticking together
of broken-down particles of other rocks or organic materials
 Mode of Formation

Sedimentary rocks form through the accumulation and cementation of sediments.

This process involves the following steps:

1. Weathering - Physical or chemical breakdown of pre-existing rocks into

smaller particles due to exposure to weathering agents like wind, water, or ice.

2. Erosion - Transportation of the weathered particles by wind, water, or ice to

new locations.

3. Deposition - Settling of the transported particles as the transporting agents lose

energy, leading to the formation of layers of sediment.

4. Compaction - Increasing pressure from the overlying layers squeezes the

sediments together, reducing pore spaces.

5. Cementation - Minerals carried by groundwater precipitate and fill the

remaining pore spaces, binding the sediments into solid rock.

Common examples of sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, halite,

gypsum, clay, dolomites, and shale.

Economic Importance of Rock

Rocks have significant economic importance due to their various uses in

construction, industry, and resource extraction. Some key aspects include:

1. Construction Materials - Rocks like granite, limestone, and sandstone are

crucial for construction purposes, providing materials for buildings, roads, bridges,
and other infrastructure.

2. Mineral Resources - Many rocks contain valuable minerals and ores, such as
iron ore in hematite or magnetite rocks, which are essential for the production of
steel. Other examples include copper, gold, and silver found in different types of
rocks.

3. Energy Resources - Certain rocks, like coal and shale, are important sources of
fossil fuels. Additionally, igneous and metamorphic rocks can host geothermal
resources for energy production.
4. Gemstones - Some rocks, such as diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, are prized as
gemstones and have significant value in jewelry and other industries.

5. Agriculture - Certain rocks contribute to soil fertility by providing essential

minerals. Limestone, for instance, is used to neutralize acidic soils.

6. Manufacturing - Rocks and minerals are key components in various

manufacturing processes. For example, clay minerals are used in ceramics, and talc
is used in the production of talcum powder and the manufacturing of plastics.

7. Water Purification - Certain rocks, like limestone, play a role in water

purification by neutralizing acidity and removing impurities.

Differences between Igneous Rock and Sedimentary Rock

a) Igneous Rocks are not stratified or not layered but Sedimentary Rocks are
stratified and layered.

b) Igneous Rocks are crystalline but Sedimentary Rocks are not crystalline

c) Igneous Rocks do not contain fossils but Sedimentary Rock contain fossils

d) Igneous Rocks are formed from magma but Sedimentary Rock are formed from
existing rocks and plants deposits

e) Igneous Rocks have many minerals but Sedimentary Rock has few minerals

f) Igneous Rocks are very hard but Sedimentary Rock are soft

g) Igneous Rocks are impervious (do not allow water passage but Sedimentary
Rock are not impervious(allow water passage)

Weathering

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces.

Biological weathering is the process of disintegration of rocks into small particles

due to the activities of plants, animals, man, and other microorganisms.

Types of Weathering
Based on occurrence, we have three types of weathering namely; Physical
Weathering, chemical weathering, and Biological weathering.

1. Physical Weathering - This is the disintegration of rocks without any changes

in their chemical composition. This may be as a result of changes in temperature,
expansion & contraction of rocks, expansion of frozen water in rock, and mineral
crevices, movement of ice mass over rocks, easter movement, enlargement of roots
in rock crevices

Effects of Temperature on Weathering of rocks

Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process

called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat)
and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again, the structure of
the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles.

Effects of rainfall on Weathering of rocks

Precipitation plays a crucial role in the process of rock weathering. Heavy rainfall
has the capacity to intensify both chemical and mechanical weathering
mechanisms. Water infiltration into rocks stimulates chemical reactions that lead to
mineral breakdown. Furthermore, the repeated cycles of wetting and drying can
accelerate physical weathering, resulting in the gradual disintegration of rocks. The
extent to which rainfall influences weathering is contingent upon variables such as
the composition of the rock, the prevailing climate conditions, and the frequency of
precipitation occurrences.

Effects of Wind on Weathering of Rocks

Wind contributes to weathering primarily through the process of abrasion. Wind-

blown particles, like sand and dust, can act as abrasive agents, wearing away the
surfaces of rocks over time. This form of mechanical weathering is especially
prominent in arid environments where wind erosion is more pronounced. The
intensity and duration of wind exposure, along with the hardness of the rock,
influence the extent of weathering caused by wind.
2. Chemical Weathering - It is the breakdown or disintegration of rocks into
smaller particles such that there is a change in the chemical composition of the
mineral constituents.

Process of Chemical Weathering

a) Oxidation - Chemical reactions between oxygen in the atmosphere and those in

rainwater with some minerals in the rock can cause chemical weathering.

b) Carbonation - Reaction between inorganic carbonic acid in soil water and

certain minerals in rocks.

c) Hydrolysis - A Chemical reaction between water and minerals in rocks forms

acid which dissolves in rocks resulting in their breakdown.

d) Reduction - Removal of oxygen from rock minerals due to oxygen deficiency.

e) Solution - Water on rock surfaces and in cracks and crevices dissolve soluble
rock minerals.

f) Hydration - Molecules of water attach themselves to rock minerals changing

them into new minerals by forming water of crystallization.

Nature of Soil

Soil is the weathered part of loose organic and inorganic materials where plants
grow or where plant life exists.

Soils are formed through the process of weathering and the transportation of
weathered and other materials.

Soils, therefore, contain inorganic components e.g. soil/soil particles, mineral salts,
water/moisture, air/oxygen and

Organic Components e.g. Decayed organic matter (Humus), and Living organisms.

Functions/Importance of Soil

i) Soil anchors plant roots.

ii) Soil is a major source of nutrients for plant growth and development.
iii) Soil supplies and water to plant.

iv) It serves as a habitat for some micro and macro-organisms such as bacteria,
fungi, earthworms, and termites.

v) Soil e.g. clay is used for the production of ceramics, tiles, and pots.

Factors Influencing Soil Formation

a) Parent material or rock material - This determines the chemical composition of

the soil formed.

b) Climate (temperature, rainfall, wind, and pressure)

c) Time (length of time the process of soil formation has proceeded)

d) Biotic factors/organisms - Activities of living organisms including vegetation

speed up the process of soil formation.

An experiment to show that the soil is made up of different particular sizes

and humus

Material Needed:

Gas jar or measuring cylinder, water, garden soil, water, and sodium carbonate.

Method

The method or procedure used is sedimentation.

Procedure

-Fill one-third of the gas jar or measuring cylinder with soil.

- Add water with dissolved sodium carbonate until the jar is almost full.

- Cover the mouth of the gas jar with the palm of your hand and shake vigorously
for about 1 minute.

- Place the jar down and allow the content to settle for about 1 hour.

Diagram of Set - Up
Observation

It will be observed that the fractions have settled in layers.

Soil Texture

Soil Texture is the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in soils that give them
different textures which therefore affects the particular soil water holding and
drainage properties.

Determination of Soil Texture.

-Mix the sample of soil with water until it reaches plastic level or just sticks to the
fingers.

-Roll the soil on a flat wooded board or textural bound.

- The final shape obtained is matched against standard shapes established for
different soil types as follows

Types of soil

There are three main types of soil namely:

1. Sandy Soil

2. Clayey Soil

3. Loamy Soil

Characteristics/properties of sandy soil

i) It is a porous soil.

ii) The particles are coarse and loosely arranged, making them visible to the naked
eye.

iii) Due to the significant spacing between particles, it is well aerated.

iv) It has low water retention capacity, allowing for efficient drainage while
retaining a small amount of moisture.

v) The soil exhibits poor mineral retention capacity.

vi) The texture is gritty when moist, preventing it from being molded.

vii) It experiences substantial leaching.

viii) The clay and silt content accounts for approximately 15%.

ix) It contains a high proportion of sand, primarily composed of silicon dioxide

(quartz).

Characteristics/properties of clayey soil

i) It is a heavy soil

ii) Contains a large proportion of clay

iii) Small-sized particles that cannot be seen when separated.

iv) Fine particles are tightly packed.

v) Has small air spacing between particles hence poorly aerated

vi) Has very high water holding capacity hence poorly drained (low drainage
ability).

vii) Soft and sticky when wet but hard and cloddy when dry.

viii) Easily cracks when dry.

ix) Has a high nutrient (mineral) holding capacity.

x) Has a meager leaching rate.

Maintains a high micro-organisms content.

NOTE: Places of clayey soil easily become water-logged because clayey soils are
poorly drained.

Characteristics/Properties of loamy soils

Contains about equal quantities of clay and sand particles.

i) Sizes are between that of a Sandy soil and a loamy soil.

ii) Contains the right proportions of plant and animal nutrients.

iii) Maintains an intermediate water holding capacity. (Holds water well but does
not get waterlogged).

iv) Has a medium water drainage ability.

v) Loamy soils have air spacing between that of clay and sand and hence are fairly
aerated.

Qualities of loam soil that make it suitable for crop production

i) Has good humus content / has the right proportions of plant and animal nutrients.

ii) Maintains a good water holding capacity.

Possess good air spacing hence aeration is good.

iii) Leaching of nutrients is minimal.

iv) Easy to till.

Experiment to demonstrate the differences in soil capillarity of sandy, loam,

and clay soils

Materials needed:

- sample of sandy, loam and clay soils

- three identical glass tubes

- three perforated cock

- cotton or foam

-bunsen burner or oven

- weighing scale

- water trough

- stop clock

- clamp stand

Procedure:

-Samples of dry sandy, clayey, and loamy soils were obtained in three different
beakers.

-Three capillary tubes or narrow tubes of the same size are also obtained for the
experiment.

-The lower end of each tube is well closed with pieces of cotton wool. The tubes
are then clamped to a retort stand.

-The tubes are filled with the same quantity of sandy, loamy, and clayey soils
respectively.

-The tubes are gently immersed in a trough containing water.

-The figure below illustrates what would be observed in the experiment.

Diagram of Set Up

Observations/Results

-It would be observed that initially, the rate at which water rises is faster in the
sandy soil than in the loam soil which is also faster than in the clay soil.

- At the end of the experiment on the next day, it would be observed that water has
risen rather higher in the clay soil than the loam soil which in turn has risen higher
than the sandy soil.

Conclusions
-Water rises faster in sand soil than loam soil which also has a faster rise rate than
sandy soil but more water will rise in clay soil than loam soil which in turn also has
more water rising than in sandy soil at the end of the experiment.

The rate of capillarity is higher in sandy soil than in loam soil which is also higher
than in clay soil but more water would rise (absorbed) in clay soil than in loam
which in turn absorbs more water than sandy soil.

Comparing the permeability (rate of drainage) and water-holding

capacities of the three main soil types

Materials Needed

- Samples of sandy, clay, and loamy soil

- three 1000cm' measuring cylinder

- three medium-sized filter funnels

- glass wool

- stop clock

- weighing scale

- Bunsen burner or oven

- water

Method or procedure

1. Obtain sandy, clay, and loam soil samples (60g each)

2. Dry soil samples at 105℃ for 15 min

3. Allow samples to cool

4. Weigh 20g of each dry soil sample

5. Set up glass wool in filter funnels on measuring cylinders

6. Add weighed soil samples to setups

7. Tap funnels to remove air spaces

8. Pour 50cm³ of water onto each soil sample

9. Allow water to drain for 1 hour

10. Record time for first drop and drainage time for each soil type

11. Note final water volume in each cylinder

12. Calculate water retained in each soil sample by subtracting final volume from
added volume.

Diagram of Setup

Observation/Result

i) It would be observed that the time taken of the first drop of water to fall into the
measuring cylinder for sandy soil is shorter than that of loam soil, while the water
drops out of the loam soil a shorter time than that of the clay soil. Similarly, all
water drains out of sandy soil at a shorter time than that of loam soil while water
also drains out of loam soil at a shorter time than in the case of clay soil.
ii) It would be observed that the amount of water that passes through sandy soil is
greater than that which passes through loam soil, while the water that passes
through loam soil is greater than that which passes through clay soil.

Conclusions

i) Sandy soil has the highest rate of drainage (permeability) hence the largest
porosity, followed by loam soil, with clay having the lowest rate of drainage and
hence smallest porosity. Thus water drains through sandy soil faster followed by
loam with clay having the slowest drain rate.

ii) Clay soil has the highest water-holding capacity (retentivity), followed by loam
with sand having the least water-holding capacity. Thus clay soils retain more
water, followed by loam soil with sandy soil having the poorest water-holding
ability.

NOTE:

i) The soil type that retains more water has the slowest rate of drainage and hence
poor porosity and vice versa.

ii) Clayey soil has the highest water-holding capacity because Clay particles are
colloidal and hence absorbs more water.

Clay particles are smaller and hence they provide larger surface per unit volume
around which water can form a film

Soil Profile

Soil profile is the vertical cross-sectional view (top to down) of the soil which
shows a series of distinct layers of the soil. The distinct soil layers are called
horizons.

Each horizon(a particular zone or layer) has different characteristics in terms of

thickness, texture, structure, colour, mineral content as well as organic matter
content.

Generally a typical matured soil has(shows) four horizons or zones namely

A also called Top soil

B also called Sub soil

C also called Parent material

D also called Parent rock (bedrock)

Top Soil (A-Horizon) also known as the Region of Eluviation. This is the very top
surface layer of the soil profile made up of a thin vegetative cover and a few young
plants. Rich in organic matter and micro-organism than any other horizon.

Usually dark in colour and made up of two regions A,and A2.A,contains organic
matter while A, has mineral materials called region of eluviation because nutrients
are leached from this region to the subsoil.

Sub Soil (B-Horizon)

Also called Region of Illuviation because leached minerals or leached nutrients

from topsoil are deposited here.

Relatively thicker than topsoil and less dark in [Link] can also be leached
from this region by percolating water. This horizon is suitable for cultivation of
deep rooted-crops such as cocoa,rubber,orange,oil palm etc..

Parent Material (C-Horizon) - Mainly made up of unconsolidated fragments of

weathered rock particles hence also called Geological Materials. Usually contains
no living organisms.

"Thickness may depend on the age of the material and colour will depend on
history.

Bedrock (D-Horizon) - Found immediately below the parent material. It is the

original rock from which parent material is formed through weathering.

Bedrock can be igneous, sedimentary or determines the properties of the soil which
is eventually formed,

NOTE:

Not all soils have all the four horizons in their profiles.

Importance of soil profile

Knowledge about the profile of a soil is necessary because it helps farmers and
agriculturalist to assess the potential or suitability of soils for crop cultivation. For
example

i) The colour of the topsoil can be used to predict organic matter content of soil
and hence its fertility.

ii) It enables one to assess the texture and structure of the soil. Thus structure and
texture of A and B horizons are indications of water-holding capacity and aeration
of [Link] structure indicates the ability of the soil to support plant growth.

iii)The depth of the topsoil serves as a guide in deciding to grow shallow or deep-
rooted crops

iv) Helps in the determination of the drainage status of soils especially in assessing
the possibility of flooding of farm lands during raining seasons.

v) Knowledge of depth of topsoil helps in agricultural practices for example in the

correct setting of a plough for tilling the land.

vi) It helps in avoiding investing and turning over less or unproductive soils.

vii) Nature and composition of bedrock determines the chemical and mineral
composition of the soil hence gives an indication about the suitability of the soil
for crop production.
 PH of Soil /Acidity Or Alkalinity

The pH soil measures the level of hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in it. It is an
expression of the level of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Thus in the soil, we have
hydrogen ions (H+) as well as hydroxyl ions (OH-). Soils with more H+ ions than
OH- are acidic.

Soils with more OH- ions than H+ ions are alkaline or basic.

Soils with equal numbers of H+ ions and OH- ions are neutral.

Acidic soils have a low pH of less than 7.

Alkaline soils have a high pH of more than 7

Neutral soils have a pH of 7.

Effects of pH on Soil and Growth

i) Soils with low pH or pH less than 4 are very acidic and not suitable for plant
growth.

ii) High pH above 9 is abnormally high hence soils are very alkaline and
unfavorable for growth.

iii) Slightly acidic soils with pH between 6 and 7 are ideally suitable for the
healthy growth of most crops.

Causes of Soil Acidity or Alkalinity

A. Causes of Soil Acidity

1. Rainfall - Areas with high rainfall often experience leaching of basic ions,
leading to acidic soils.

2. Organic Matter Decomposition - Decomposition of organic matter produces

organic acids, contributing to soil acidity.

3. Parent Material - Some rocks and minerals naturally produce acidic soil
conditions when weathered.

[Link] of Soil Alkalinity

1. Calcium Carbonate Deposits - The presence of minerals like limestone can

elevate soil pH, making it alkaline.

2. Irrigation Water - Water with high mineral content, particularly bicarbonates,

can increase soil alkalinity.

3. Desert Soils - Arid regions may have alkaline soils due to low leaching and
accumulation of salts.

Liming is the process whereby calcium is added to the soil through the
application of chemicals to reduce the acidity of the soil.
The following chemicals can be used for liming. Limestone, CaCO3), Quick lime
CaO), Slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, Clay (Calcium silicate, CaSiO3), Shell meal, Palm
bunch ash,

Liming performs two functions namely;

1. Primary function - Correcting the acidity of soil by neutralizing the hydrogen

ions causing acidity.

2. Secondary function of providing calcium and/or magnesium to replenish these

elements that have been lost from the soil through leaching or continuous cropping.

Importance/Benefits of liming

i) It corrects soil acidity by restoring the pH of the soil which is ideal for plant
growth.

ii) It improves soil structure which promotes soil aggregation.

iii) It makes available in the soil come essential nutrients such as molybdenum to
enhance plant growth.

iv) It controls soil plant-borne disease.

v) Allows for better performance of soil organisms

vi) It promotes the efficient and effective use of microorganisms.

Topic 8: ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic Compounds are the carbon compounds except for carbon oxides metallic
trioxocarbonate, cyanides, and alike which are conventionally classified as
inorganic substances.

Examples of organic compounds are; methane, ethane, ethanoic acid, ethyne, fats
and oil, protein, nylon, ethane benzene ethanol, carbohydrates, plastic, etc.

SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Crude oil or Petroleum

- Natural gas
- Coal from plants and animals remains (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oil, simple
sugars, wool, and fibers).

THE PROPERTIES OF CARBON THAT ENABLE IT TO FORM MANY

STABLE COMPOUNDS.

- Carbon has a valence of four (tetravalency) and can therefore form four covalent
bonds.

- Carbon atoms can join together to form stable straight and branched chains and
rings.

- Carbon can form single, double, or triples bonds with other carbon atoms and
also atoms of some other element

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND INORGANIC

COMPOUNDS

Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

i) They are mostly covalent i) They are mostly ionic

ii) They have low melting point ii) They have high melting points

iii) They are low boiling point iii) They have a high boiling point

iv) They are usually volatile iv) They are usually less volatile

v) Carbon is always present v) Carbon may or may not be present

vi) They are mostly soluble in vi) They are mostly soluble in inorganic solvents such as wate
organic solvents but insoluble in cryonics solvents.
water.

vii) They are highly vii) They are not inflammable.

inflammable

FAMILY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The families under which organic compounds can be grouped are known as
Homologous Series.

Acids, Alkanoate, and Fats and Oils.

A. Hydrocarbons-These are compounds containing the elements carbon and

hydrogen only. They are further divided into four groups namely, Alkanes (single
bond), alkenes (double bonds), alkynes (triple bonds), and aromatics (ringed
compounds).

AlKANES

Alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general molecular formula CnH2n+2 where n = 1,
2, 3, 4, 5…….

For e.g: If n=1, we have CH4 called methane.

If n=2, we have C2H4 called ethane

If n=3, we have C3H6 called propane

If n=4, we have C4H8 called butane

If n=5, we have C5H10 called pentane

If n=6, we have C6H12 called hexane

If n=7, we have C8H14 called octane

If n=,8 we have C9H16 called nonane

They contain single bonds and are also known as paraffin.

They are saturated hydrocarbons. i.e. they exhibit a valency of four with no double
or triple bonds between them.

Alkanes are unattractive due to their saturated nature and hence undergo
substitutional reactions instead 0f additional reactions.

It is the only hydrocarbon that cannot decolorize bromine water.

They have no functional group. Examples of alkanes are; methane, ethane, propane,
butane, pentane etc.

IUPAC NOMECLATURE OF ALKANES

i) Identify the longest continuous carbon chain and name it to be the parent alkane.

ii) Number the carbon atoms in the root hydrocarbon from the end which will give
the lowest number to the substituent. The substituent may generally be alkyl
groups such as CH3, -methyl, CH2CH3-ethyl, CH2CH2CH3-propyl etc., or halogens
(Group 7 elements) which are indicated by the prefix f-floro, cl-chloro, Br-Bromo,
I-bromo etc.

iii) Halogens are named first in alphabetical order followed by the alkyl group also
in alphabetical order. Hence, br, cl, f, I, etc. and ethyl, methyl, propyl, etc

iv) If a substituent appears twice or more, indicate this by the prefix di (2), tri (3),
tetra (4) etc.

v) Where there is a substituent, number from both sides and start naming from the
closest substituent to the first carbon atom. Either left or right.

vi) Number and word are separated by hyphen, numbers are separated by a comma,
and words are joined. E.g 2-bromo, 2, 3-dichloro, floroethane.
 Isomerism

Isomerism is a phenomenon where two or more compounds have the same

molecular formula but different structural formula

Isomers
These are compounds that exhibit isomerism

Functional Group

A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms bonded to carbon which give an

organic compound its characteristic chemical property.

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Saturated hydrocarbons - These are organic compounds containing carbon to

carbon single bonds only. Hence, all the members of alkane group are saturated
[Link], methane,ethane,propane,butane [Link] all saturated
[Link] general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is

CnH2n + 2,where n=1,2,3,4.....

Unsaturated hydrocarbons - These are organic compounds containing either carbon
to carbon double bonds or carbon to carbon triplebonds.

Hence all the members of alkene such as ethene,

propene,butene and alkyne group such as ethyne,

propyne,buthyne are all unsaturated hydrocarbons.

The general formulae for unsaturated hydrocarbons are

CnH2n and CnH2n-2, where is a positive integer n=2,3,4.

Test unsaturated hydrocarbons

When an alkene or alkyne is shaken with bromine water, the solution changes from
brown to colorless.

Alkanes are saturated and therefore would not change the color of the bromine
water.

Substituent This is an atom or a group of atoms, except hydrogen, which is

bonded to the longest continuous carbon chain.

Locant - The number which indicates the position of the attached atoms or a group
of atoms.

ALKENES

Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the general molecular formula C2H2n where n=2, 3,
4, 5………..

They contain double bonds in the chain. Thus, alkenes have atoms less than the
corresponding alkanes.

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because of the existence of the double bond
(C=C). They are also known as Olefins.

Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. They undergo additional reactions to break
the double bond into a single bond.

They have the functional group –C=C-.

Alkenes can decolorize bromine water.

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES

i) Identify the longest continuous carbon chain with the double bond and name to
be the alkene.

ii) The position of the double is factored into the naming

iv) Count from each ends and begin the naming where the double bond is closer to
the first carbon atom.

v) Continue to locate the substituent along the carbon chain and name it using the
same rules in alkanes.

vi) End the naming with ‘ene’ instead of ‘ane’.

 USES OF ALKENE

i) In the manufacture of plastics

ii) For industrial preparation of alcohol

iii) In the process of repining fruits

iv) In the manufacture of glycerol

ALKYNES

Alkenes are unsaturated with the general molecular formula CnH2n-2 where n=2, 3,
4, 5 …

They have triple bonds with C to C bonds.

They have the functional group - c ≡ c –

They do not exhibit geometric isomerism.

They can decolorize bromine water

IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkynes

The naming of alkynes follows that of the alkanes and the following points must
also be observed in addition:

- Naming of alkynes are derived from alkane by dropping 'ane' and replacing them
with 'yne'.

- In selecting and numbering the longest continuous chain,the functional group is

given preference over substituent [Link] functional group is given the smallest
possible number.
 Alkanols/Alcohol

They have the functional group – OH

They have the formula CnH2n+1OH where n = 1, 2, 3, 4……

They are not hydrocarbons since they contain oxygen atoms.

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANOL

-The longest continuous carbon chain bearing the –OH group is considered the
parent structure.

-The position of the –OH group is indicated with the least possible number.

-For alcohols with more than three carbon atoms in a continuous chain specify the
position of the –OH group.

- Indicate and name the substituent on the parent structure by counting from the
direction of the –OH group

-Name the alcohols by replacing the ending ‘e’ of the corresponding alkane with
‘ol’.
 Uses of alcohol

- As solvent for paints and varnishes.

- As methylated spirits which consist of about 5% methanol and 95% ethanol.

- For preservation of specimen and food.

- For sterilization.

- For alcohol beverages [Link], spirit,etc.

- As raw materials in the manufacture of chemicals such as trichloromethane.

Note that industrial methylated spirit contains

95% ethanol and 5% methanol.

Alkanoic Acid

-The general formula is CnH2n+1 COOH or RCOOH where R is the alkyl group

-The functional group is COOH is known as a carboxylic group.

-They react with alcohols or alkanols to produce esters (alkyl Alkanoate) Alkanoic
acid

-As the name implies,carboxylic acid has an acidic character and therefore turns
blue litmus red.

-They react with alcohols or alkanols to produce esters (alkyl alkanoate).

- They react with sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV),NaHCO to liberate carbon

dioxide (Co,)

IUPAC nomenclature of Alkanoic acids

- The naming of alkanoic acids follows that of the hydrocarbons and the following
points must also be observed in addition:

- Select the longest carbon chain containing the -COOH group.

- Replace the 'e' in the corresponding alkane by ioc'acid.

- Start the numbering from the carboxyl group as 1st carbon.

 Alkyl Alkanoate (Esters)

-An ester or alkyl Alkanoate is an organic compound produced by the reaction

between Alkanoic acid and an alkanol.

-Esters have pleasant fruity sweet smelling.

Natural Sources of Esters

- They are founded on flowers

- They are found in fruits e.g pears, ripe, bananas, and pineapples
 Laboratory preparation of ester

- A certain amount of acetic acid and ethanol are combined in a test tube.

- A small amount of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is added with caution, and
the mixture is gently heated.

- The mixture is then cooled while being gently agitated, resulting in the formation
of an ester with a pleasant fruity or sweet aroma.

- The ester produced is known as ethyl acetate.

- This chemical process is formally referred to as Esterification.

- In this reaction, the forward process is Esterification, while the reverse process is
hydrolysis.

- Specific conditions are required for the Esterification reaction to occur..

1. The use of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid or catalyst

2. Application of heat.
 Esterification and Neutralization reactions

A. Esterification reaction is the reaction between alkanol and Alkanoic acid in the
presence of a catalyst and heat to produce ester and water only

B. Neutralization reaction is defined as the reaction between acids and bases to

produce salt and
water.

Differences Between Neutralization Reaction and Esterification Reaction

Neutralization Reaction Esterification Reaction

Does not involve heat Heat is involved

Does not use catalyst Uses catalyst

Reaction is irreversible Reaction is reversible

Main product is inorganic salt Main product is organic ester

Fast reaction Slow reaction

 Uses of ester

i) Ester is used as a solvent

ii) Ester is used as a flavor in food

iii) Ester is used in soap-making

iv) Ester is used in the preparation of perfumes.

v) Ester is used in the preparation of polymer or fibers.

Fats and Oil

Fats are oils obtained from the reaction between glycerol and long-chain
carboxylic acid. Chemically, fats and oil are similar since they both contain
elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Uses of fats and oils

i) Domestically for cooking e.g. palm oil, groundnut oil

ii) Commercially for making margarine, soap, alcohol, drugs, etc.

iii) In making glycerol, candles, and paints.

Saponification

Saponification is a reaction between fat or oil and hot concentrated alkali to form
soap and glycerol.

Saponification is used to produce soap.

Preparation of Soaps

Traditional Soap Making Process

- Soap is traditionally crafted by simmering palm oil, palm kernel oil, or other oils
with ash derived from either cocoa pods or plantain peels.

- The peels or pods are incinerated to produce ashes.

- Water is subsequently incorporated into the ashes, meticulously stirred to
dissolve, and then strained to yield a solution containing potassium hydroxide.

- The resulting potash solution (filtrate) is introduced to the simmering oil, stirred
consistently for a period, and left to boil for numerous hours.

- Sodium chloride is dissolved in water, combined with the mixture, stirred

thoroughly, and allowed to cool.

ii) Industrial Preparation of soap

-Soap is prepared industrially by boiling an oil/fat with a solution of potassium

hydroxide(caustic potash), KOH or sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) NaOH for
several hours.

-Soaps which form remain in solution with the water and glycerol. A saturated
solution of sodium chloride,(brine) is added and this causes the soap to settle on
top of the water as a semisolid mass.

- The water below is drained off and perfume and other colors are added to the
soap which remains. The soap is then left to harden after which it is pressed into
cakes, bars, or tablets.

NOTES:

i) The process whereby a saturated solution of sodium chloride, brine is added for
the soap to settle or come out and be separated from glycerol and water is called
salting out

ii) When potassium hydroxide is boiled with an oil/fat a soft soap is produced. Soft
soaps are normally used for toilet purposes.

iii) When sodium hydroxide is boiled with oil a hard soap is formed. Hard soaps
are normally used for laundry.

iv. Waste products from the manufacture of soap are glycerol, lye, and salt

Detergent

A detergent is a cleansing agent. Or detergent is a substance that can clean and

remove dirt from objects or substances.
 Types of Detergent

We have soapy detergent and soapless detergent.

Soapy detergent - This is what we refer to as soap. A soap is a sodium or

potassium salt of a long-chain carboxylic fatty acids formed from the reaction
between fats/oils and an alkali. This is a biodegradable detergent. E.g. key soap,
guardian soap, Rexona, duck soap, geisha etc.

Soapless detergent - These are what we call detergent. A detergent is a sodium

salt of long-chain sulphuric acid made from long-chain hydrocarbons, sulphonic
acid, and alkali. E. g omo, klin, Ariel, surf, klee soft, etc.

Natural and synthetic polymers

A polymer is a large molecule made by joining together many smaller molecules

called monomers by the process of polymerization. Examples are carbohydrates,
proteins, plastics, nylon, starch, cellulose, etc.

Monomers

A monomer is a simple molecule from which a polymer can be made.

Some natural polymers

·Carbohydrate

·Proteins

·Starch

·Rubber

·Cellulose

.Sucrose

·Nucleic acid

Some artificial or man-made polymers or synth polymers

·Plastic
·Polythene

·PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

.Bakelite

·Nylon

·Polyester

Polymerization

Polymerization is the chemical process of joining up a large number of small

molecules of the same compound (monomers) to form large molecules (polymer).

Application or importance of polymerization

For the production of polyethylene, nylon, polyester,polythene, plastics, synthetic

rubber.

Conditions for polymerization

1. High pressure.

2. Catalyst like peroxide.

3. Moderately high temperature.

CRUDE OIL OR PETROLEUM

Crude oil or petroleum is a complex mixture of many hydrocarbons.

Fractional distillation

This is the process by which the different hydrocarbons, crude oil, or petroleum is
distilled into fractions according to differences in boiling points and is the key step
in refining crude oil

Cracking is the breakdown of complex (large) molecules of hydrocarbons by

action of heat or a catalyst to produce small molecules.

polymers of hydrocarbons which can be molded into shapes.

 Uses of plastics

Plastics used use in the production of the following items:

i) Drain pipes

ii) Floor tiles.

iii) Linoleum

iv) Hinoleum

v) Receptacles for storing water or polytanks or buckets.

vi) Wrappers.

vii) Safety glasses.

viii) Artificial leather for furniture

ix) Insulators.

x) Handbags, toys, chairs, tables, and electronic devices.

Advantages of plastic over metals

i)Resistant to corrosion or rusting

ii) Resistant to corrosive chemicals

iii)Good insulators or poor conductors of heat.

iv) Nonconductors or good insulators of electricity.

v) They are cheaper.

vi) They are light in weight

vii) They can be molded easily

viii) They are safer to use.

Problems or disadvantages of plastics

1. Most plastics are strong and not easily destroyed by bacteria when disposed of
after use i.e. they are non-biodegradable.

2. They may collect together in drains and block the drainage; thus creating sewage
problems.

3. Plastics can be burnt at refuse damp but will not burn well and also the products
of burning can be hazardous.

Ways to overcome the problems or disadvantages of plastics

Recycle the old plastic items into new items like combs, garbage bins, crates for
soft drinks, pipes, etc.

Topic 9: Respiration

Respiration is defined as the overall process of breathing, gaseous exchange, and

the breaking down of chemicals to provide energy for living things.

It can be defined as the process leading to the chemical breakdown or oxidation of

food in the cells to release energy. The major processes of respiration are;
breathing, gaseous exchange, and tissue respiration.

Different organisms use different respiratory organs for respiration. For example

1. Worms - body surface

2. Fishes - Gills

3. Insects - tracheal system

4. Reptiles - Lungs

5. Amphibians - Mouth lining, skin, and lungs

6. Unicellular organisms e.g amoeba and paramecium-body surfaces

7. Domestic fowl - lungs

8. Mammals e.g human - lungs

9. Flowering plants - stomata and lentils

 Importance of Respiration

i) Respiration produces chemical substances in cells e.g. protein.

ii) Muscular contraction - especially during movement.

iii) cell division (either meiosis or mitosis).

iv) Production of heat.

v) Transmission of nerve impulse.

vi) Active transport in and out of cells.

Types of Respiration

There are two types of restoration namely; Internal Respiration and External
Respiration

[Link] Respiration - It is the breakdown of food substances in the cells to

produce energy with or without the participation of molecular oxygen. This is
further grouped into aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Tissue Respiration and Gaseous Exchange

Tissue Respiration involves the breakdown of glucose which takes place within
living cells with the release of energy from glucose while gaseous exchange is
concerned with the process involved in obtaining Oxygen needed for respiration
and removing the gaseous wastes such as carbon dioxide and water vapor.

Aerobic Respiration - This is the breakdown of glucose in the cells of living

organisms with the use of oxygen to produce energy. Glucose and oxygen are the
raw materials, and the main product is energy whilst carbon dioxide and water are
the by-products. The equation is shown below.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water

In the Krebs Cycle, glucose is broken down into pyruvate during glycolysis, and
oxygen is present, the pyruvate enters the mitochondria where it is converted into
acetyl-COA. This acetyle-COA the Krebs Cycle. This absent in the Krebs cycle
Anaerobic Respiration - This is the breakdown of glucose in the cells without the
use of [Link] this process, energy is produced by breaking down glucose
without using oxygen, other molecules such as lactic acid or ethanol are produced
as a by-product.

In animals: C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + Energy

Fermentation - It is the process by which microorganisms (e.g. yeast) break down

sugar (e.g. glucose) in the absence of oxygen to release energy, carbon dioxide,
alcohol, or lactic acid as byproducts.

In plants and yeast (fermentation) :C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy

Differences between Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen is needed Oxygen is not needed

More energy is produced Less energy is produced

Occurs in the mitochondria Occurs in the cytoplasm

Carbon dioxide and water are the by- Alcohol or lactic acid is produced
product as

Industrial Application of Anaerobic Respiration

i) In the baking industry to produce bread and biscuits.

ii) In the production of Kenkey

iii) In the production of Yogurt and Cheese.

iv) In the production of gin and whisky

v) In the production of beer, wine, and pito.

Characteristics of respiratory organs
i) They have a large surface area.

ii) They are wet or moist.

iii) They are equipped with blood vessels.

iv) They have thin walls to support diffusion.

v) They are permeable to allow gaseous exchange.

Respiratory Structure of Humans

The respiratory stricture of humans consists of the nasal cavity, larynx, pharynx,
trachea (windpipe), bronchus, Bronchiole, alveoli, and lungs

Functions of the human respiratory system

i) Lungs - Main organ for respiration.

ii) Larynx/voice box - protect sound and direct air into the trachea.

iii) Trachea - filters dust particles and removes bacteria.

iv) Bronchus - Serves as a passage of air from the trachea into the lungs.

v) Bronchiole - Serves as a passage of air into the alveoli.

vi) Ribs - a cage to protect the lungs.

vii) Diaphragm - It separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity

viii) Intercostal Muscle - Regulates the variation of the movement of ribs to aid
external respiration

B. Breathing/External Respiration - This is the process of taking in oxygen from

the atmosphere into the lungs and giving out carbon dioxide from the lungs into the
atmosphere.

Simply, Breathing is the exchange of gases between the lungs and the atmosphere.
It is an involuntary action and it's controlled by a part of the brain called the
medulla oblongata.

Breathing comes in two types namely; exhalation and inhalation

The route /path of carbon dioxide from the blood on to the atmosphere when
we breathe out

Alveoli → bronchiole → bronchus→ trachea→ larynx→ pharynx → nostril

Inhalation/Inspiration - It is the process of taking oxygen into the lungs by

mammals.

Mechanism of Inhalation

During inhalation

- External intercostal muscle contract and internal intercostal muscle relax.

- Ribs and sternum move upwards and outwards.

- Volume of the chest cavity increases

- Air pressure in the lungs decreases.

- Diaphragm moves downward and becomes flattened.

- Air from the atmosphere rushes into the lungs.

Exhalation/Expiration - It is the process by which living organisms or mammals

give out carbon dioxide from their lungs into the atmosphere.

Mechanism of Exhalation

- External intercostal muscle relaxes and internal intercostal muscle contract.

- Ribs and sternum move downwards and inwards.

- Diaphragm moves upwards and becomes concave.

- Air pressure in the lungs increases.

- Air from the lungs rushes into the atmosphere.

Comparison Between Inhaled Air and Exhaled Air

Inhaled Air Exhaled Air

Has 20% more of oxygen Has 16% less of Oxygen

Has 0.03% of CO2 or less Has 3.5 % of CO2 or high

Water vapour content varies Saturated with water vapour

Has same temperature as that of the Temperature is independent of that of

atmosphere the atmosphere

Problems and Disorder associated with respiratory organs

-Lung Cancer

-Asthma

-Tuberculosissis

- whooping cough

- Pneumonia
- emphysema

- hay fever

- catarrh/common cold

Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System

- causes chronic bronchitis

- causes lung, throat, and mouth cancer

- causes emphysema

Respiration in Plants.

Unlike humans, plants do not have elaborate structures for respiration. Thus, the
exchange of gases occur through the stomata and lenticels.

During the day, when light is present, for photosynthesis, air from the atmosphere
diffuses into the leaf through the stomata and finally to the photosynthetic cells.

The tissue in the leaf uses oxygen for respiration and releases carbon dioxide as a
by-product.

The excess oxygen produced then diffuses from the leaf into the atmosphere
through the stomata.

During the night, when there is no light, air from the atmosphere diffuses into the
leaf through the stomata.

The air or oxygen moves through the intercellular space of the leaf and diffuses
into tissues of the leaf.

The tissue of the leaf uses oxygen for respiration and release carbon dioxide as a
by-product.

The carbon dioxide produced diffuses into the intercellular spaces of the leaf and
comes into the atmosphere through the stomata.

An experiment to compare the amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and

exhaled air
Materials required

Two conical flasks, cork (or rubber bung), delivery tube and lime water

Procedure or method

-Label the two conical flasks as A and B.

-Place equal volumes of lime water in each of the flasks.

-Connect delivery tubes to the flasks using rubber bungs as shown in the diagram
below.

-Place your mouth on the rubber tubing and breathe in gently.

-Note carefully which flask the inhaled air bubbles through.

-Now breathe out gently through the rubber tubing.

-Note carefully which flask the exhaled air bubbles through.

Observations

1. The flask that the exhaled air bubbles through is flask A.

2. The flask that the inhaled air bubbles through is a flask B.

3. The suckled air or inhaled air that contains more carbon dioxide is exhaled air.

4. The changes that have occurred in flask A and flask B are:

(i) In flask A the content turns milky.

(ii) In flask B the content remains clear.

Conclusion

The lime water in the flask in which the exhaled air bubbles turn milky indicates
that it contains CO, but the one in which the inhaled air bubbles remain clear

indicates the absence or insignificant CO2, presence. This shows that exhaled air
contains amounts of CO2

An experiment shows that carbon dioxide is released during respiration

Aim of the experiment

To show that carbon dioxide is released during respiration or to show that

mammals breathe out carbon dioxide.
Materials required

1 Bell jar or a bottle, 3 conical flasks or bottles, delivery tubes, with holes, small
mammals (e.g. mouse, rabbit, guinea pig or rat) suction pump, lime water, sodium
hydroxide, vaseline.
Procedure or method

The apparatus is set up as shown below. Three conical flasks A, B, and D, a bell jar
C, and a suction pump are assembled using delivery tubes and rubber bungs.

The conical flask A contains a caustic soda solution (NaOH); flask B contains lime
water [Ca(OH)2] the big bottle C is the bell jar with mouse and flask D also
contains lime water [Ca(OH)2].

The suction pump is connected to the flask D.

Atmospheric air enters flask A, then moves to flask B, and from there it enters the
bell jar C and finally reaches flask The suction pump draws atmospheric air into
the apparatus and directs it to
flask D

Experimental set up

Observation

i) The sodium hydroxide solution in flask A absorbs carbon dioxide upon entry and
exit. Consequently, the air entering flask B is devoid of carbon dioxide.

ii) Flask B functions as a control experiment to ascertain the absence of carbon

dioxide in the air entering the bell jar. Should the calcium hydroxide solution in
flask B turn milky, it indicates the presence of carbon dioxide in the air entering
flask B, possibly due to the malfunction of the sodium hydroxide solution in flask
A.

iii) Over time, the calcium hydroxide solution (lime water) in flask D becomes
milky. This occurs as a result of the small mammal releasing carbon dioxide into
the flask D.

Precaution

One important precaution to be taken is to apply vaseline or grease to the glass

sheet to make it airtight.

Conclusion
Carbon dioxide is released during respiration in mammals.

An experiment to show that energy (heat) is released during respiration of

germinating seeds

Aim of the experiment

To verify that germinating seeds release energy during respiration.

Materials needed

Some quantities of germinating seeds, no vacuum flasks, two thermometers, rubber

bung or cork, disinfectant, two sets of retort stand and clam,p, and cottonwood.
Procedure or method

Place some growing bean seeds in an inverted flask whose mouth has been plugged
with a rubber bung after the beans have been washed in a disinfectant. A
thermometer is then inserted into the flask.

Make sure the flask is well evacuated such that there is no air in it. Clamp the
whole unit in an inverted position and label A as shown in the figure below.
Set up a similar one but in this case, boil the bean seeds to kill them such that they
cannot germinate.

This will act as a control experiment and label B

Precautions

1 . The beans in both flasks should be free from any contamination, especially
living organisms

2. The beans in flask B must be dead ones.

3. The thermometers should not be held with bare hands or any hot objects.
Observation
Experimental setup

After some time, the thermometer in A indicates a rise in temperature but

thermometer n B does not show any temperature change.
Conclusion

This means that beans in A, the germinating beans respire to produce heat energy
but those in B, do not.

An experiment shows that carbon dioxide is released during anaerobic

respiration in yeast

Aim of the experiment

To show that carbon dioxide is produced during anaerobic respiration by yeast.

Materials needed

Dry commercial yeast, glucose, test tube, delivery tube, cooking oil, lime water
Ca(OH)2 bunsen burner, beaker, water, spatula, and chemical balance.

Procedure or method

1. Boil 200ml of water in a beaker to drive out all the air. Leave it to cool.
2. Using a spatula, weigh out 10g of glucose powder and add it to 200 ml of water
in a beaker to make a 10% glucose solution. Fetch some quantity of dry yeast and
weigh out 10g of it into another 100ml of water to make a 10% yeast suspension.

3. Fill a clean test tube with 5 ml of the glucose solution and add about 1 ml of
yeast suspension to it. Cover with about 2ml of cooking oil.

4. Fit a delivery tube into the test tube with the yeast-glucose suspension and a test
tube filled with lime water as shown in the diagram below. Maintain the setup at
37°C for 24 hours using the burnsen Burner.

Experimental setup

Observation

After about 10 minutes there would be bubbles in the lime water and the lime
water turns milky.
Conclusion

When the lime water turns milky, it indicates that carbon dioxide has been
produced by the yeast cells when the yeast cells respire in the absence of oxygen.

Deductions from the experiment

1. The cooking oil covering the yeast-glucose suspension is to exclude atmospheric

oxygen from coming into contact with the yeast-glucose suspension.
2. The water used to prepare the glucose yeast suspension is boiled and cooled to
make it oxygen-free.

3. The temperature of the system was maintained at 37℃ because that is the
suitable temperature within which the yeasts work best.

4. the equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast:

C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy or Glucose→Ethanol + Carbon

dioxide + Energy

Topic 10: The Concept of Mole

1. Mole is the amount of substance containing Avogadro's number of particles.

2. Mole is the amount of elementary particles of a substance containing the same

number of particles or entities as there are atoms of 12g of carbon 12.

According to Avogadro, 1 mole of a substance contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms.

Mathematically, Amount of Substance (n) = Mass of substance / Molar mass

of the substance. n = m/[Link] S.I unit is mol.

Molar Mass - This is the mass of 1 mole of a substance.

Mass - It is the quantity of matter contained in a substance.

In calculating the number of moles in a substance, it is important to take note of the

following relative atomic masses.

H=1.0, S = 32, O=16, Na = 23, Cl= 35.5, Cu = 63, C= 12, N= 14, Ca=40,
Al=27

Qu1 Calculate the amount of substance in 4.2g of NaHCO3. [Na=23, C=12, O= 16,
Ca=40]

Sol

mass of substance = 4.2g, Molar mass of NaHCO3 = 23 + 1+ 12 + (16×3) =

84gmol-1

Mole, n = mass(m) /molar mass (M)

 = 4.2/84= 0.05 mol

Qu2

What is the amount of substance in 5g CaCO3?

Sol

mass of substance = 5g

Molar mass of substance of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100gmol^-1

Mole, n =mass(m) /molar mass (M)

= 5/100=0.05mol

Qu3

Calculate the amount of substance in 9g of aluminum (Al=27 gmol^-1)

Sol

Mass of substance = 9g

Molar mass of Al = 27gmol^-1

Mole, n = mass(m) /molar mass (M)

= 9/27

= 0.33mol

Qu4

If the mass in gram of 0.1mol of a compound is 10g, find the molar mass of the
compound.

Sol

Mass of substance, m =10g

Mole, n = 0.1mol

Molar mass of compound= ?

n = m/M

0.1 = 10/M

M= 100g/mol

Qu5.

Calculate the number of moles present in 35.0g of iron metal. [Fe=56]

Sol

Mass of substance = 35.0g

Molar mass of Fe = 56g/mol

Mole, n = mass(m) /molar mass (M)

= 35/56

= 0.625mol

Qu6

How many moles of HCl are contained in 7.3g HCl? [H=1, Cl = 35.5]

Sol

Mass of substance = 7.3g

Molar mass of HCl = 1+35.5=36.5g/mol

Mole, n = mass(m) /molar mass (M)

= 7.3/36.5

= 0.2mol

Qu7

A sample of KOH weighs [Link] the number of moles in the sample.

[K=39, O=16, H=1]

Sol
Mass of substance = 5.6g

Molar mass of KOH = 39+16+1=56g/mol

Mole, n = mass(m) /molar mass (M)

= 5.6/56

= 0.1mol

Qu8

Given that Avogadro constant is 6.02×1023, calculate the number of atoms in

0.01mole of carbon

Sol

Avogadro's constant, L=6.02×1023 and n=0.01 mol

Number of atoms, N= n × L = 0.01 × 6.02×1023

= 6.02×1021

Qu9

Calculate the number of

i) oxygen molecules in 0.2mol oxygen gas;

ii) oxygen atoms in 0.2 mol oxygen gas, O2. (Avogadro's constant, L = 6.02×10-23)

Sol

Avogadro's constant, L = 6.02×10-23

Number of atoms, N =?

Amount of substance, n =0.2mol

Number of atoms, N= Amount of substance, n × Avogadro's constant, L

i) N = n × L

N = 0.2 × 6.02 × 1023

 N = 1.204×1023 molecules of oxygen gas, O2

ii) 1 molecule of oxygen has 2atoms

N=n×L

N = 2 × 1.204×1023

N = 2.408×1023 atoms of oxygen(O)

Qu10

You are given 12.04 × 1023 molecules of ammonia gas, NH3. Calculate the amount
of substance in the ammonia molecules. [L=6.02×1023]

Sol

Number of molecules, N of ammonia gas = 12.04 ×1023 , L =

N= n × L

n= N/L

n =12.04× 10^23/ 6.02×1023

n = 2mol

Preparation of Standard Solutions of Given Concentrations

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. A solution whose

solvent is water is called aqueous solution.

Solute is a component or part of the solution that is dissolved in the solution. E. g

table salt, sugar, etc.

Solvent is the component of the solution that dissolves the solute

Characteristics of solution

1. Solution is a homogeneous mixture

2. The particles of solution cannot be seen

3. Solution does not scatter beams of light.

4. Solution has only one phase

5. Solution from solute cannot be separated by filtration

6. Particles of solution cannot be seen with naked eyes.

Concentration is the amount of solute per given volume of a solvent.

Types of concentration

In integrated science, we consider only two types in computation.

[Link] Concentration, m = mass in g/ volume (dm3 ) . SI unit is g/dm3

NB:1000cm3 =1dm3 , 1000g=1kg.

2. Concentration in mole per dm3 (Molarity) , M = mass(m) × Molar mass(M) ×

Volume (dm3)

Now, mole, n = mass/molar mass(M)

n=m/M but m = n × M.........(1)

Mass concentration (g/dm3 ) = mass(g) /volume (dm3 ) ........... eq (2)

Plug m into eq…………….. (2)

We get

Conc in mol/dm3 = mass/molar mass × volume

i. e mol/dm3 = m/M×V........( 3)

Also, since m/M equals Mass Concentration,

Conc in mol/dm3 = Conc. in g/dm3 /Molar mass.... (4)

Conc in g/dm3 = Conc in mol/dm3 × molar mass……(5)

[Link] aqueous solution of 2.0dm3 contains 53.0g sodium trioxocarbonate (IV).

Calculate the concentration in
a) g dm-3

b) moldm-3

[ Na2CO3=106 ]

Solution

a) Conc. in gdm-3 = Mass /Molar mass

= 53.0g / 2.0gdm-3

= 26.5g/dm-3

b) Conc. in mol/dm-3 = Mass/Molar mass ×Volume

=53/106× 2

= 0.25 mol/dm-3

2. Determine the mass of NaoH pellets required to prepare 0.25 mol in a dm^3 of
aqueous NaoH solution [Na=23, O =16, H =1]

Sol

Mass = M × molar mass × volume

= 0.25 × 40 × 1

= 10g

3. A solution was made by dissolving 47.5g of potassium iodide (KI) in 300 cm-3
of water. Calculate the concentration of KI in moles/litres

[K=39, I=27]

Sol

Conc. in mol/litre = Mass/molar mass ×Volume (dm-3)

= 47.5/66×0.3

= 2.4mol/dm-3
4.A student weighed 7.5g of NaHCO3 in the laboratory.

i) Name the apparatus used

ii) Calculate the number of moles of the substance weighed

[Na=23, O=16, C=12, H=1]

Sol

i) Electronic balance, beam balance, chemical balance, or top pan balance

ii) mole = mass/molar mass

= 7.5/84

= 0.089mol.

5. Calculate the volume of water needed to dilute 20cm-3 of 5.0M HCl to 1.0M HCl
solution.

Sol

According to dilution law,

C1 V1 = C2V2

(5.0 × 20) = 1× V2

V2 = 100cm-3

Volume of water required =100-20 = 80cm3

6. A standard solution of sodium hydroxide was prepared by dissolving 4g of

solute in 250cm3 of water.

i) Determine the Molarity of the solution

ii) Calculate the volume of water required to dilute 100 cm3 of the solution to a
concentration of 0.25moldm-3.

[Na=23, O=16, H=1]

Sol
i) mass of NaoH =4g, Volume =250/1000 =0.25dm-3

Morality (Conc. in moldm-3) = Mass /Molar mass × Volume

= 4/40×0.25

= 0.4moldm-3

ii) According to dilution law, C1V1 = C2V2

0.4 × 100 = 0.25 × V2

V2 = 160cm-3

Volume of water required=160-100=60cm-3

7. 2.0cm3 of an aqueous solution contains 25.5g sodium chloride. Calculate the

concentration of the solution in moldm-3

Sol

Conc in g/dm3 = mass/volume

= 25.5/2

= 12.75g/dm-3

Conc in moldm-3= Conc in gdm3/ molar mass

= 12.75 / 58.5

= 0.22moldm-3

8. A solution contains 18.0 g of glucose per dm-3 . Calculate the Molarity.

[C6H12O6 =180]

Sol

M = Mass /molar mass × volume

Mass = C × molar mass × volume

18 = C × 180 × 1
C = 0.1M

9. If 500.0cm-3 of 1.0M NaoH solution is diluted to 1dm-3 with distilled water,

calculate the concentration of the diluted solution

Sol

C1V1=C2V2

1× 0.5 = C2 × 1

C2= 0.5moldm-3

10. A solution of volume 500 cm3 contains 9.80g of H2SO4. Determine its molar
concentration.

[S=32, O =16, H =1]

Sol

Volume = 500/1000 = 0.5dm-3

mass = 9.80g, molar mass of H2SO4 = 98g/mol

Molar concentration = mass/molar mass × volume

= 9.80/98 × 0.5

Molar concentration = 0.2M

Topic 11 - Coordination of Life Processes (Response in Organisms)

The coordination of life processes refers to the regulation and integration of

various activities within an organism to maintain homeostasis and ensure survival.
This includes processes like metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli,
and maintaining internal balance despite external changes.

In humans, there are two coordination systems namely; the nervous system and the
hormonal or endocrine system.

Nervous System
The nervous system is a central system made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and
the nerves.

The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the
spinal cord .The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves passing
information to and from the central nervous system. Thus, the nerves from the
brain (i.e. cranial nerves) and spinal cord (spinal nerves).

Functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS made up of the brain and spinal cord has the following functions:

i) Co-ordinates and controls the activities of the body.

ii) Maintains interactions of the body with the external environment

iii) Responsible for the psychological and emotional behaviors of humans.

iv) Responds and adjusts the body to the conditions of the external environment.

Nerves are linked to the CNS with the various sensory organs. Nerves carry
impulses to and from the extremities of the body. The cells that carry impulses are
called neurons.

Neurone

The neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.

There are three types of neurons namely; sensory neurons, motor neurons, and the
relay neurons.`1

A. Sensory neurons - They carry messages from the sense organs to the central
nervous system for process or interpretation. Receptors are the ends or terminals of
the sensory neurons.

B. Motor neurons - They transmit messages from the CNS to effectors (muscles
and glands). They link intermediate neurons in the CNS to effectors.
C. Relay neurons - it is also called association neurons. It connects the motor
neurons and the sensory neurons within the CNS. They carry impulses from the
CNS to effector organs such as muscles and glands.

Diagram of a neuron

Functions of the parts of a neuron

1. Axon:lt transmits impulses from the cell body to effector organs or muscles.

2. Dendron:The branched projections of a neuron that act to propagate the electro-

chemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body.

3. Dendrites:They carry nerve impulses from adjacent neurons into the cell body.

4. Nerves:Carry impulses to and from the extremities of the body.

5. Motor end palt:The large and complex terminal formation by which the axon of
a motor neuron establishes synaptic contact with a striated muscle fiber.

6. Node of Ranvier: The function is to speed up impulse transmission along the

neuron.

7. Cytoplasm - This allows cells to communicate with other neurons.

8. Nucleus- Controls life processes of the cell.

9. Myelin sheath or fatty sheath:enables impulses to travel faster along a nerve,

and also acts as an electrical insulator.
 The Brain

The brain consists of three main parts namely; Cerebrum (forebrain), Cerebellum
(hindbrain), and Medulla Oblongata.

1. Cerebrum - Controls involuntary activities of the body. It consists of the

cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, optic lobes, pituitary gland, and olfactory tubes.

a) Cerebral cortex - Is concerned with activities such as intelligence,

memory,vision, touch, taste, speech, imagination and emotions.

b) Hypothalamus - Responsible for involuntary activities such as water balance,

carbon dioxide levels in the blood, appetite, sleep, hunger and regulations of body
temperature.

c) Optic lobe - Controls sight

d) Olfactory lobe - Controls smelling.

e) Pituitary gland - Responsible for the secretion of some hormones that control
various body activities e.g, the activity of endocrine gland. It also controls growth.

2. Cerebellum - It is responsible for muscle control and balance. For example, it

coordinates the body during running, walking, driving a car, swimming, and riding
a bicycle.

3. Medulla Oblongata - controls heartbeat, breathing, sneezing, coughing,

vomiting, yawning, blood pressure.

Diagram of the Brain

 The spinal cord

The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column, which encloses it. Spinal
nerves enter and leave. Sensory nerves enter the cord through the dorsal root and
the motor nerves leave it through the ventral root.

The actions of the reflex system are controlled and coordinated by the spinal cord.
The spinal cord is the continuation of the brain.

The structure of the spinal cord is much simpler than the structure of the brain.
This reflects its simpler functions. It has grey matter (cell bodies and very short
relay neurons in the center and white matter (axons) on the outside.

Down the spinal cord, there are entry points at regular intervals for the sensory
nerves to bring information into the CNS and motor nerves.

Diagram of spinal cord

 DAMAGE TO THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

When the brain and the spinal cord are damaged, the damage caused is permanent
and irreversible. This is because the nerve cells that get damaged never heal.

If part of the brain is damaged, life activities controlled by that part of the brain
become impaired, and any abnormal behavior, as a result,t is often permanent and
irreversible.

Sometimes other parts of the brain can take over some of the life activities. So
there is a partial recovery.

Factors that cause damage to the brain and spinal cord

1. Accidents on the road, in the home, and at work.

2. Organic illnesses such as brain tumors and infections. For example meningitis.

3. Depression

4. Drug and alcohol abuse.

Effects of damage to the brain and spinal cord on the affected persons

When the brain or spinal cord is damaged, the affected person may behave
abnormally and will not be able to:

1. Think rationally and make decisions to plan.

2. Tolerate behaviors that are different.

3. Adjust to sustain relationships with other people.

4. Adjust to stress relating to changes in the environment.

5. Look after his or her welfare, including personal hygiene and feeding.

The effect of damage to the brain and spinal cord on the family of the victim

1. There is reduced income for the family when one member leaves his/her job to
care for the victim.

2. Inadequate financial resources have made it difficult for many families to take
care of the sick.

3. There will be increased burden and stress for the family to take care of the
victim as well as his/her children.

4. The effect carries with it a social stigma, so when a family learns that one of its
members has the effect, it faces much the same stress as the individual.

5. It may lead to divorce.

The effect of damage to the brain and spinal cord on society

1. The sector that requires trained and skilled workers will be affected most. This
will lead to less productivity in an organization due to lost work days because of
illness
2. Expenditures of organizations are increased due to health care costs, recruitment,
and training to replace the affected employees.

3. Frequent changes in the labor force can lead to less experienced personnel who
are less productive.

4. The children of the affected persons may be out of school because they may not
get anyone to pay their school fees.

5. In severe cases it may threaten society.

DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

Drug

A drug is any chemical that changes how the body works or how a person behaves
or feels.

Classification of drugs

Drugs can be categorized in many ways:

·Hard or soft

.Uppers or downers

·Addictive or non-addictive

·Most harmful or least harmful

·Legal or illegal.

Classification of drugs based based on abuse.

Concerning its abuse, drugs can be grouped into the following:

·Stimulants

·Depressants

·Hallucinogens

Uses of drugs
1. Medically, drugs are used to treat illness and diseases.

2. Drugs are used to relieve pain, anxiety and stress

3. Socially drugs are used to relax and enhance pleasure.

Additional classification of drugs

Drugs can further be classified as licit or illicit drugs.

Licit drugs

They are drugs that are medically acceptable to relieve pain and control diseases.

illicit drugs

Illegal drugs that are banned by law when used can be injurious to health, additives,
and affect the central nervous system.

Drug misuse and drug abuse

Drug misuse occurs when the use of a drug (legal or illegal) is harmful or
potentially harmful to the physical, mental, or social well-being of an individual,
group, or society

Drug abuse, on the other hand, is the repeated and excessive use of a natural or
synthetic substance for non-medical reasons like to produce pleasure or to escape
reality despite its destructive effects.

Drug abuse can affect a person's physical and emotional health as well as social
life. Specific hazards of drug abuse differ from person to person.

Why do people abuse drugs?

Different people have different reasons for different times, Young people
experiment with drugs for various reasons. Some of these reasons include:

1. Peer pressure. Thus when young people especially teenagers do not want to feel
different from others in a group they conform to feel accepted.

2. To feel grown up.

3. To rebel against parental values and authority.

4. Curiosity about the effects,

5. For high performance in school and at work.

6. To escape emotional problems.

7. Frustrations in life.

Drug addiction

Drug addiction is defined as dependence on an illegal drug or medication from

which the person is unable to quit on his or her own. Some people have become
addicted to drugs because:

(a) They become physically and psychologically dependent on them

(b) They fear the pain and difficulty of withdrawal.

Symptoms of drug addiction

- Building up drug tolerance.

- Taking drugs to avoid or relieve withdrawal symptoms

- Loss of control over one's drug abuse or wishing to stop but unable to do so.

- One's life revolves around drug use

- Abandoning activities or hobbies one used to enjoy.

- Perpetual use of drugs despite the knowledge that it hurts.

- Depression.

- Madness or abnormal behavior.

Alcohol abuse

Alcohol is defined as a depressant produced by the fermentation of grains or

vegetables.
Depressants are defined as drugs that reduce or slow down the activity of the
nervous system.

Alcohol drinks consist of ethyl. alcohol or ethanol and water. Alcohol when taken
is absorbed into the bloodstream and starts to take effect within 5 to 10 minutes.
Alcohol causes users to be jovial and have a merry feeling.

Alcohol also causes several changes in behavior.

These are:

1. low doses significantly impair judgment and coordination to drive a car safely.

2. low-to-moderate doses can increase the incidents of a variety of aggressive acts

including spouse and child abuse.

3. moderate to high doses cause marked impairment in higher mental functions,

severely altering a person's ability to learn and remember information.

4. very high doses cause respiratory depression and death.

The effects of alcohol abuse

Regular use of alcohol can lead to the following:

1. Severe gastric and liver damage

2. People have to fit their lifestyle to alcohol use.

3. Regular drinking of large amounts of alcohol by pregnant women can harm the
fetus.

4. There are risks of overdosing, becoming unconscious, and choking on one's

vomit which can result in death.

Dangers of abusing drugs

An overdose of drugs can cause the following:

1. Psychosis

2. Convulsion
3. Coma

4. Death.

VOLUNTARY ACTION AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Voluntary actions

Voluntary actions are actions or activities which are initiated under the control of
the brain. It can also be said to be the activity under the control of the will power.
Examples of voluntary actions

·Singing

·Writing

·Reading

·Walking

·Eating

·Running

·Shouting

Involuntary action or reflex action

Involuntary action is also referred to as reflex action. lt is defined as the automatic

response to stimulus without the control of the brain and cannot be suppressed.
They happen unconsciously and without being noticed or controlled. Examples of
involuntary (reflex) actions

- Secretion of saliva on smelling food aroma

- Yawning.

- Blinking of the eye

- Sneezing.

- Heartbeat.
- Coughing.

- Knee jerking.

- Peristalsis.

- Dilation of the pupil when exposed to darkness.

- Expansion of pupil when exposed to light.

- Withdrawing the hand from a hot object or sharp object.

Reflex Arc

The reflex arc is defined as the path through which impulses travel during a reflex
action. It is made up of a chain of neurons namely sensory, relay, and motor
neurons.

Parts of the reflex arc and their functions

1. Sensory receptor - Receives the stimulus or release electrical impulses to

sensory neurons.

2. Sensory neuron or afferent neuron - Transmits impulses.

3. Synapse - Contracts and brings about movement or response to impulse.

4. Relay or intermediate neurons - It is one of the three classifications of neurons

found in the human body. Relay neurones create neural circuits, enabling
communication between sensory or motor neurones in the central nervous system
(CNS).

Dorsal root

It contains sensory cells. When it is damaged the following effects occurred:

· Damage to dorsal root is damage to sensory cells hence break the impulse
transfer between sensory cell and central nervous system or spinal cord.

· Impulses or messages cannot get into the spinal cord.

Ventral root
It contains motor [Link] it is damaged the following effects occurred:

.Damage of the ventral root causes damage of motor neurons.

.Impulses or messages leaving the spinal cord cannot get to the effector cells
(muscle or gland)

Explanation of the reflex action involved when a boy accidentally touches a

hot object and quickly withdraws his hand

- As soon as the boy's hand touches the hot object the temperature receptors in the
skin at the point of touch becomes stimulated.

- Message or impulse is then sent along the sensory neuron to the spinal cord
through the dorsal root.

.The impulses move across the synapse to the relay neuron and then to the motor
neuron.

.The impulse proceeds along the axon of the motor neuron to effector muscles in
the hand.

.The muscles in the hand contract to pull or withdraw the hand.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system consists of a group of glands situated in different parts of the
body which are similar in the fact that they secrete hormones.

Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are those glands whose secretions reach their targets without
passing through any ducts or tube. They are also called ductless glands.

Exocrine glands

- Exocrine glands are defined as glands whose secretions are released through
ducts or tubes before reaching their targets. An example of the secretion of
exocrine is pancreatic Juice.

Hormones
Hormones are chemical substance released into the blood stream which causes it to
alter the activity of the organs.
 The Sense Organs

Sense organs are specialized organs sensitive to an external stimulus that causes
the generation of impulses that are transmitted to the brain.

Changes that occur can be detected by our senses known as Stimuli. Our reactions
to stimuli are called responses.

The table below shows the various sense organs and the changes
they detect

Sense Organs Sense Stimulus (Change

detected)

eyes sight light

ears hearing sound

nose smell Chemicals in nose

tongue taste Chemicals in mouth

skin Temperature/touch/feel Heat/cold/forces on skin

The Eye
The function of the eye is to see. Thus, our eyes enable us to detect light. The sense
cells of the eyes detect light in various wavelengths and turn this into electrical
impulses.

These are taken into the Brain through the optic nerve so that an accurate image
can be formed.

Functions of the part of the eye

1. Sclerotic layer - supports and maintains the shape of the eyeball.

2. Cornea - Allows light to enter the eye and also refracts light entering it.

3. Conjunctiva - It covers and protects the cornea

4. Choroid - It contains blood vessels and support cells with nourishment and
carries waste products. It also prevents internal reflection

5. Aqueous humor - It is the watery fluid in front of the lens similar to blood
plasma. It helps to maintain the shape of the eye and carries nutrients to the cornea
and lens.
6. Pupil - Allows light to enter the rest of the eye which is sensitive to light.

7. Lens - It is a transparent disc held in place by suspensory ligaments. The lens is

flexible hence the shape can be altered.

8. Retina - This is the back of the eye which is sensitive to light. Contains
numerous sensitive cells which send messages to the brain along the option nerve.

9. Blind spot - A non-photosensitive disc that is devoid of light-sensitive cells. It is

the region where nerve fibers connecting the rods and cones leave the eye as the
optic nerve.

10. Optic nerve - This transmits impulses initiated by different wavelengths of

light to the visual region of the brain where the information is processed to form an
image.

11. Yellow spot - The region of the retina where most cones are located most light-
sensitive region for sharp color vision.

12. Ciliary body (muscle) - A ring of muscle fibers that alters the shape of the lens
for focusing.

13. Sensory ligaments - They hold the lens in place and connect the lens to the
ciliary body.

14. Fovea centralis - Also called yellow spot. It is the most light-sensitive part of
the retina. Contains mainly receptor cells for a clear colored image.

Accommodation (focusing) of the eye

Accommodation is the ability of the eye to automatically adjust the focal length of
the lens according to the distance of an object from the eye such that images of
objects from far and near are brought to a focus on the fovea of the retina. Thus,
the eye can focus on both distant and near objects.

Unaccommodated Eye

This is the one that focuses only on either far or near objects but not both

Eye defects and their corrections

Eye defects are due to eye strain, old age, or abnormal shape of the eyeball. The
common defects of the eye are; Short-sightedness (myopia), long-sightedness
(hypermetropia), and astigmatism.

Other defects include;

- detached retina partial blindness

- old sight or presbyopia

- color blindness

- glaucoma

- cataracts.
The Human Ear
The human ear has three main parts (sections) namely: outer ear, middle ear, and
inner ear.

a) Outer Ear

- Made up of the pinna (ear flap) and ear canal.

- Pinna collects sound waves and directs them through the ear canal to the eardrum.

- The eardrum is also called the tympanic membrane and when sound waves strike
it, it vibrates moving back and forth.

b) Middle ear

- It is the space between the eardrum and the oval window and contains the ear
bones an Eustachian tube.
- Ear-bones are three small bones called auditory ossicles. These bones are hammer
(malleus), anvil (incus) and stirrup (stapes)

- Inner bones carry vibrations across the middle ear causing the oval window to
vibrate.

- The eustachian tube enables pressure on both sides of the eardrum to be equalized.

c) Inner Ear

- Found behind the oval window.

- Made up of the fluids, cochlea, semi-circular canals, and auditory nerve.

- The cochlea contains some liquid and is concerned with hearing (lined with hairs
that are vibrated by sound which activates the auditory nerve to the brain). The
semi-circular canal contains some liquid and is concerned with the sense of
balance.

- Auditory nerves are concerned with sending messages from sensitive cells from
the cochlea to the brain.

How does the ear bring about hearing?

- The pinna collects sound waves and directs them through the auditory canal
where the sound waves are concentrated in the middle ear.

- This sets the eardrum into vibration.

-Vibration from the three ossicles is transmitted into the inner ear.

- The fluid in the inner ear is then set into vibration.

- This vibration produces impulses that are transmitted to the brain through the
auditory nerves.

- The brain then interprets the impulses as sound with the correct pitch and relays it
back to affect hearing.

How does the ear bring about balance

When body balance is lost, sensory nerves in canals are stimulated by fluid
movement. Impulses sent to brain, interpreted, and motor impulses sent back to
muscles to restore balance. Canals in different planes detect body movement.
Canals detect head movement, utriculus and sacculus detect head position relative
to gravity.

Effects of loudness and pitch of sound on human ears

Loud sounds cause permanent damage to the tiny hairs in the cochlea, and this can
lead to partial deafness over some time.

The high-pitched sounds stimulate the cochlea near the oval window, while low-
pitched sounds stimulate hairs further up the spiral.

Protecting or caring for the ear

The ear is a very delicate organ and must be protected or cared for in order not to
become the following protective measures should be followed:

- Carefully remove the wax in the ear canal regularly.

- Avoid inserting objects into the ear.

- Use protective earmuffs and earplugs when working under conditions where the
noise levels are high.

-Gogling with a wild disinfectant when you have a cold or throat infection to
minimize the spread of infection to the middle ear via the Eustachian tube.

Topic 12: Animal Production

Animal farming involves the keeping, management, and husbandry practices of

farm animals.

In Ghana, domestic farm animals are mainly livestock, with livestock kept mainly
being poultry and ruminants.

Examples of poultry include fowls, guinea fowls, ducks, turkeys, and ostriches.

Examples of ruminants include goats, sheep, and cattle.

Other farm animals that are also kept include snails, rabbits, grass cutters, and pigs.
 Importance of farm animals

- For income

- For food

- For employment

- Foreign exchange

- For manure

- For power and transport

- For research and medicine

- For sports and pleasure

- For religious and cultural celebrations

Products of major farm animals

1. Cattle: meat (beef), milk, hide, manure, work (bullocks used for plowing)

2. Sheep: meat (mutton), wool, hide, hair, milk, and manure

3. Goats: meat (chevon), hide, milk, and manure

4. Pigs: meat (pork), meat products (bacon, sausage, smoked ham), luncheon meat,
bristles for brushes, liguhter leather, and manure

5. Poultry: meat, eggs, feathers for stuffing in pillows, and manure

6. Rabbits: meat, skin for clothes and decorative purposes, and manure

Among all domestic farm animals reared in Ghana, poultry is the most widely kept.
Kinds of poultry include domestic fowls, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and
ostriches.

Poultry is a term used to describe all domestic birds reared for or kept for the
primary purpose of meat and egg production.
Importance or benefits of poultry
1. Provides employment.

2. Income from eggs and meat.

3. Manure used as fertilizer.

4. Feathers for decoration.

5. Feathers for pillows.

6. Source of protein for animal feed.

7. Food for consumption.

8. Feathers are used as symbols.

9. Leisure or hobby.

Breeds of fowl

A breed of fowl is a class of birds that have come from one ancestor and look
much alike in terms of body shape, size, and feather color.

In Ghana, we have local breeds and exotic breeds.

Local (indigenous) breeds: - Characteristics

- Originated in Africa

- Smaller size, tough flesh

- More resistant to diseases and heat stress

- Produce fewer, smaller eggs

- Broody and take care of chicks

- Slow growers

- Great foraging ability

- Usually kept for home consumption

Foreign (Exotic) breeds:-Characteristics

- Introduced into Africa

- Large body size, soft and tender flesh

- Fast growers

- Produce many large eggs

- Less prone to broodiness

- More prone to diseases

- Mainly kept for commercial purposes

Crossing between local and exotic breeds gives all kinds of hybrid ones. Hybrids
are dual purpose.

Differences between Local Breed and Exotic Breed

i) Local breeds are small, while Exotic breeds are large

ii) Local breeds are slow growers, while Exotic breeds are fast growers

iii) Local breeds produce fewer and smaller eggs, while Exotic breeds produce
more and larger eggs

iv) Local breeds are more resistant to disease, while Exotic breeds are less resistant

v) Local breeds have tough meat, while Exotic breeds have soft and tender meat
vi) Local breeds are broodier and exhibit great parental care, while exotic breeds
are not broodier and do not exhibit parental care.

Classification of breeds of fowl

Modern fowls are classified based on color, place of origin, and economic value
into three types of breeds:

-broilers

- layers and

- dual purpose.

Broilers are raised for meat production. Examples of broilers include ;

-Dark Cornish

- Jersey black giant

- Hypeco broilers.

-New Hampshire

- Plymouth Rock

-Marshall broilers

Characteristics of Broilers

-They are fast growers

- They are larger

- They mature between 8-10 weeks

Layers are kept for egg production. Examples of layers include;

- Single-comb white leghorn

-Single comb brown leghorn,

-Minorca.
- ISA Layer.

-Nora Sex Link

- Goldline 54

Characteristics of Layers

- Smaller in size

- consume fewer feeds.

- Take 18-20 weeks to begin producing eggs.

- Generally nervous and difficult to confine.

- Do not often go broody

Dual-purpose breeds are crossbreeds of layers and broilers. They are good layers
and also produce high-quality meat.

Examples of dual-purpose breeds:

-Rhode Island Red

-New Hampshire Red

- Australorp

- Light Sussex.

Housing For Poultry

Poultry production requires suitable housing. A suitable house for fowls should
provide comfort, be well-ventilated, clean, dry, spacious, and properly lit. It should
also be sited in a suitable environment to protect the fowls from harsh weather
conditions and obnoxious gases. Before construction, consider the purpose, initial
cost, and maintenance cost. The poultry house should be simple and able to cater
for brooding chicks, laying hens, and broilers.
Environmental factors to consider include road access, soil drainage, prevailing
wind direction, sunlight direction and the location of the brooder house. Good
housing for farm animals ensures protection from harsh weather conditions.

Poultry Equipment

- Water trough

- Feeding trough
- Nest boxes

How the Water trough Works

water from the cup fills the trough to cover the hole. As birds drink from the trough,
the water level decreases below the hole. Subsequently, water from the cup
replenishes the trough to cover the hole once again.

Maintenance of the device involves

- Clearing any particles that obstruct the hole

- Regular cleaning of the apparatus

- Consistently refilling the device

- Placing it slightly higher above floor level to prevent dust from entering

Other potential devices that can be used include:

- A shallow container

- A split bamboo container filled with water

- Used lorry tires filled with water

 MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS OF POULTRY-KEEPING

Three common management systems for domestic birds are:

1. Extensive system

2. Semi-intensive system

3. Intensive system

Extensive system

This is the type of management system where the fowls are allowed to move freely
in search of food and water over a large area. Under this system, we have a free-
running system and a free-range system.

Free running system

Under this system, fowls are allowed an unlimited scavenging area to freely move
around in search of food.

The housing is simple and built with cheap materials like mud, wood, or bamboo.
The birds are often found roosting at night on walls in the house or on tree
branches near the house. There are no planned feeding period for the fowls and are
fed either early in the morning or late in the evening when feed is available.

Advantages free running system

1. There is no overcrowding since there is a large extent of land available.

2. Fowls have plenty of exercises.

3. Less money is spent on maintaining fowls.

4. Fowls obtain enough forage and grit.

Disadvantages of free running system

1. Fowls may be lost to predators

2. Eggs are often lost, and broken and are also unclean and few.

3. The system gives low-income to farmers.

4. Fowl's population may be difficult to determine since it is difficult to have close
supervision.

5. Fowls are easily exposed to infectious diseases, which become difficult to

control in the flock

6. There is a high rate of death from diseases and pest attacks as a result of moving
vehicles.

7. There is a high risk of exposing fowls to adverse conditions of the weather.

Free range or open range system

Under this system, fowls are housed but are allowed to move freely in large fenced
grassland during the day. They are given balanced rations and disease and pest
control is taken care of.

Advantages of free-range system

1. The rate of death, diseases, pest attacks, and killing by moving vehicles are less
pronounced.

2. Fowls are properly housed.

3. The incidence of contamination and diseases is reduced since fowls are not
allowed to mix with stray birds.

4. The free range is most suitable for the management of breeding flocks and the
rearing of future breeding birds.

Differences Between Free Range and Free Running Sytem

Free Range Sytem Free Running System

Fowls are properly kept Fowls are poorly kept

Fowls are restricted to a fence area Fowls have liberty to go anywhere

Fowls are properly fed on balanced Fowls are poory fed on balanced ration
ration

Fowls are not allowed to mix with stray Fowls are allowed to mixed with stray
fowls fowls

Semi-intensive system

This system combines aspects of intensive and extensive systems. Fowls have
some housing and limited freedom to roam. Types include run system and movable
systems.

Run system

This is a system in which fowls are reared in a permanent house (pen) with grass
run attached for the fowls to move about.

The grass run is divided into two and they are used alternatively to control the
spread of parasites and to allow the run to recover before being used again.

The term 'run' as used here refers to a piece of grassland enclosed by a fence made
of wire.

Advantages of run system

[Link] does not require a lot of money.

[Link] is easier for the owner to supervise his flock.

[Link] have access to natural vegetation and sunshine.

4. lt is suitable for all ages of birds.

5. lt is ideal for backyard poultry farming.

Disadvantages of run system

1. Runs may become wet and muddy during rainy season.

2 Diseases spread easily if birds are exposed to infection

[Link] birds remain on the same run for a long time, it becomes contaminated
with diseases and parasites.

Movable fold unit

This involves the use of a movable house within an enclosed run. Birds use the
house at night and use the run during day.

Advantages of Movable Fold Unit

1. Facilitates simultaneous grazing for other livestock.

2. Provides protection for birds against unfavorable weather conditions.

3. Facilitates easier management of disease outbreaks.

4. Ensures birds are shielded from predators and wild animals.

5. Suitable for birds of all ages and species.

6. Eliminates the need for labor-intensive night-time locking.

7. Prevents wild birds from consuming or contaminating feed.

8. Birds are housed in small groups, simplifying culling processes.

 Disadvantages of Movable Fold Unit

1. Results in decreased egg production.

2. Birds may engage in egg-eating, feather-picking, and cannibalism without close

supervision.

3. Requires substantial labor to relocate the unit.

4. Not suitable for uneven or hilly terrain.

5. Higher housing costs compared to a stationary range system.

Intensive system

In this management system, the poultry are confined within enclosed poultry
houses and are not granted access to roam freely. Due to their confinement indoors
throughout their growth period, meticulous attention must be paid to feeding,
sanitation, and disease prevention. The majority of commercial poultry farmers in
Ghana opt for an intensive system due to its perceived reliability and effectiveness.
There are two main types of intensive systems utilized: the deep litter system and
the battery cage system.

Deep litter system

This is the most popular of the intensive system for commercial poultry production.
It consists of a well-ventilated pen in which the birds are housed on both days and
nights. The pens have litter with wood shaving, sawdust, or cut straw.

Differences Between Intensive Sytem and Extensive System

Intensive Sytem Extensive System

Animals are well fed Animals searched for their own food

Animals are confined Animals are not confirmed or have

adverse weather conditions

Records are properly kept Records are not properly kept

Capital Intensive Less Capital Intensive

 Labour Intensive Less Labour Intensive

Measures to maintain good litter house

 Ensure the floor litter remains consistently dry.

 Eliminate any insect nests and cobwebs present on the walls.

 Repair any cracks on the walls and floors using mortar or appropriate
materials.

 Use recommended disinfectants to sanitize the floor and walls after cleaning
or removing the litter.
  Thoroughly clean all equipment after each use, and rake or stir the litter
daily.

 Regularly replace the floor litter.

Advantages of the deep litter system

1. Requires minimal labor.

2. Suitable and efficient for accommodating a large flock simultaneously.

3. Maintains hygienic conditions, reducing the risk of pests and disease

outbreaks.

4. Prevents loss of birds and eggs due to predators or theft.

5. Provides a comfortable environment for birds to feed and drink.

6. Results in fewer cracked eggs.

7. The ammonia produced during decomposition acts as a disinfectant against

coccidiosis.

Disadvantages of the deep litter system

 Limits movement for fowls, reducing exercise opportunities.

 Does not provide access to natural green forage.

 Requires a significant investment in housing and equipment.

 Overcrowding and wet litter can lead to cannibalism.

 Eggs may become dirty if the litter is wet and not promptly collected.

 Record-keeping can be challenging, and pests may spread more easily.

Battery cage system

This system consists of multiple tiers of wire mesh, galvanized, or wooden cages
stacked on top of each other.
 Advantages of the battery cage system

1. Saves labor and space.

2. Enables close monitoring of fowl performance for culling sick or poor laying
hens.

3. Efficiently utilizes feed for egg or meat production.

4. Ensures clean egg shells.

5. Facilitates detailed record-keeping for individual birds.

6. Low incidence of diseases and parasites as birds are not in contact with their
droppings.

7. Fowls are quieter and lay larger eggs.

8. Prevents fowls from eating their eggs.

Disadvantages of the battery cage system

 Costly to construct and maintain.

  Restricts fowl movement and exercise.

 Lacks access to natural vegetation.

 Thin-shelled eggs may crack on the wire floors.

 Less effective in regions where labor is inexpensive.

 Confinement in cages can lead to leg weakness, wounds, and lameness.

Poultry Management Practice

Poultry management practices are aimed at optimizing the performance of the birds,
whether through routine or periodic measures.

Culling

Culling involves the removal of unproductive, poorly performing, or sick birds

from the flock to maximize economic benefits.

Significance of Culling

- To mitigate the occurrence and spread of diseases or parasites.

- To reduce the cost of feeding laying birds.

- To create additional space for other birds.

- To enhance overall yield.

Debeaking

Debeaking is the partial removal of a poultry bird's beak.

Reasons for Debeaking

- To prevent cannibalism.

- To prevent egg-eating.

- To prevent feed wastage.

- To protect chicks from harm.

- To deter egg pecking.

Decombing

Decombing involves the removal of the combs of poultry or young birds to prevent
restlessness, infections caused by flies, facilitate weight gain, and prevent pecking.

Significance of Decombing

1. It reduces microbial infections of the comb.

2. It prevents pecking.

3. It shields the bird from fly disturbances.

4. It promotes weight gain.

Deworming

Deworming is a management practice that involves administering recommended

drugs to birds at specific intervals to expel or eliminate all forms of worms.

Importance of Deworming

It is carried out to eradicate all forms of worms from birds or to manage

ectoparasites.

Vaccination

Vaccination is the process of introducing dead or weakened pathogens into the

body to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against specific
diseases. The substance introduced is known as a vaccine.

Significance of Vaccination

It is performed to prevent particular diseases such as Newcastle disease, fowl pox,

etc.

Characteristics of a good Laying Hen

 Large combs and wattles.

 Bright eyes.
  Dark-red or glossy combs and wattles.

 Soft, expanded abdomen.

 Spread pelvic bones.

 Oval, large vent.

 Moist vent.

 3-4 finger spaces between breast and pelvic bones.

Poultry Diseases

- Coccidiosis.

- Newcastle disease.

- Gumboro disease.

- Fowl pox/Avian flu/bird flu.

- Marek's disease/fowl paralysis.

- Pullorum/Bacillary White Diarrhea (BWD).

- Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD).

- Footrot.

- Ringworm.

- Perosis.

- Fowl cholera.

- Fowl typhoid.

- Coryza.

- Fowl pneumonia.

Day-old chicks
 Day old chicks are produced either by a broody hen or an incubator. The term
"day-old chicks" refers to chicks that are up to 7 days old. These chicks are hatched
from hatching eggs, not table eggs. In the poultry industry, eggs are categorized
into hatching eggs and table eggs.

Table Eggs

Table eggs are unfertilized eggs laid by hens that have not been fertilized by
roosters. As they are unfertilized, they will not hatch into chicks and are intended
for consumption.

Hatching eggs, on the other hand, are fertile eggs obtained from hens that have
been fertilized by roosters.

In Ghana, day-old chicks are produced in commercial quantities by a few farms

using artificial incubation and hatchery. Broody hens can also naturally incubate
and hatch chicks, albeit in smaller quantities. Consequently, chicks can be sourced
from two origins: broody hens and the hatchery.

Day-old Chicks from Broody Hens

Natural incubation involves eggs being incubated by broody hens with broad
breasts and fluffy down feathers to provide the necessary warmth for hatching eggs.

Advantages of natural incubation

1. Suitable for hatching a few eggs.

2. Requires minimal capital.

3. More eggs are likely to hatch.

4. Relies only on the broody hen's body heat.

Disadvantages of natural incubation

1. Availability of broody hens may be limited.

2. Eggs are exposed to pest attacks and poor weather.

3. Not suitable for producing commercial quantities of chicks.

 Artificial Incubation

Artificial incubation involves keeping fertilized eggs under controlled warm

temperatures and humidity conditions to develop embryos into chicks without the
involvement of the mother hen. It uses enclosed heat-insulated chambers with
controlled temperature, humidity, and ventilation. The eggs are regularly turned for
21 days until they hatch into chicks.

Advantages of Artificial Incubation

 Produces large quantities of chicks from many eggs at once.

 Incubation can be done anytime eggs are available.

 Eggs are protected from pests and bad weather.

Disadvantages of artificial incubation

8. Failure of heating sources leads to chick losses.

9. Costly to establish incubators.

[Link] for hatching a small number of eggs.

[Link] hatch rates than expected.

Poultry Bird Mortality

Bird mortality refers to the death of birds. The mortality rate is the frequency at
which birds die on a specific farm within a given period. Therefore, the mortality
rate of birds at Darko farms in 2005 can be assessed by the following formula:

Percentage Mortality = (Number of deaths recorded / Total number of

organisms) x 100%

Causes of High Poultry Bird Mortality on a Farm

- Disease outbreaks.

- Predators' presence.

- Contaminated feed.
- Contaminated water.

- Poor housing or inadequate ventilation.

- Improper drug administration.

- Ectoparasite infestation.

- Inadequate feeding.

- Weather fluctuations.

Methods to Reduce Poultry Bird Mortality on a Farm

- Proper bird feeding.

- Timely administration of prescribed drugs.

- Early isolation of sick birds or culling.

- Disposal of moldy feed.

- Debeaking to prevent cannibalism.

- Thorough sanitation of water containers and feeding troughs is essential to

prevent contamination and maintain optimal hygiene standards..

Reasons for Daily Fluctuations in Egg Production

- Changes in weather conditions or temperatures.

- Variations in feed quality and quantity provided to birds.

- Alterations in water supply.

- Presence of vermin, stress, or fright.

- Health issues or disease outbreaks.

- Cannibalism.

- Changes in feeding schedules.

- Infestation by ectoparasites like lice, ticks, and mites.

 Ruminant Production

Ruminants are four-chambered mammals that engage in cud-chewing. The

primary challenge in livestock production in West Africa does not stem from a lack
of land, feed, or disease outbreaks, but rather from a deficiency in technical
expertise. Examples of ruminants include goats, cattle, sheep, deer, antelope, and
giraffes.

Management Practices in Ruminant Production

Breeding involves the careful selection and pairing of animals, plants, or living
organisms to produce offspring with enhanced quality.

Breeding Stations in Ghana

 University of Ghana Research Farm near Nungua

 Pong-Tamale

 Wa

 Adidome

 Busa

 Daboya

 Ejura

Desirable Characteristics Considered During Breeding

i) Resistance to Pests and Diseases

ii) High Meat Yield

iii) Early Maturity or Rapid Growth

iv) High Milk Yield

v) Superior Quality Carcasses

vi) Productivity of the Animals

vii) Adaptability to Changes in Environmental Conditions

Types of Breeding or Mating

Depending on the farmer and the management system in place, farm animals can
be mated using the following methods:

i) Pasture Mating or Pasture Breeding

ii) Hand Mating or Hand Breeding

iii) Artificial Insemination

Pasture Mating or Pasture Breeding

This involves the random mating of farm animals in the field. The male moves
with the female, and mating occurs whenever the females are on heat; it may leave
the young ones and mate with the older ones.

Advantages of Pasture Mating

1. Reduced Labor and Cost: It necessitates less human intervention and fewer
resources compared to more controlled breeding methods, resulting in
decreased labor and operational expenses.

2. Natural Mating Environment: Animals are allowed to mate naturally,

which can be less stressful and more conducive to natural behaviors, potentially
enhancing animal welfare.

3. Continuous Breeding Opportunity: Animals have ongoing access to each

other, increasing the likelihood of successful mating over a prolonged period.

4. Lower Infrastructure Requirements: Specialized facilities or equipment,

such as artificial insemination (AI) facilities or separate breeding pens, are
unnecessary.

5. Improved Heat Detection: Males can detect females on heat more

effectively than humans, leading to more timely and accurate mating.
6. Enhanced Physical Condition: Animals in pasture mating systems tend to
receive more exercise and can be in better physical condition compared to those
in confined systems.

7. Natural Selection Benefits: Pasture mating allows for some level of natural
selection, where only the healthiest and fittest animals are likely to mate and
reproduce.

Disadvantages of Pasture Mating

 Reduced / Control Over Breeding : Monitoring which males are breeding

with which females is challenging, resulting in uncertain parentage and
potential inbreeding.

 Lower Conception Rates: The natural environment may not always be

optimal for mating, leading to lower conception rates compared to controlled
breeding methods.

 Injury Risk: Animals can injure each other during mating, especially when
multiple males are competing for females.

 Disease Transmission: Close and frequent contact among animals increases

the risk of spreading sexually transmitted diseases.

 Difficulty in Managing Breeding Schedules: Synchronizing breeding and

calving or lambing seasons is more complex, complicating management and
resource allocation.

 Genetic Selection Limitations: Controlled breeding allows for better

selection of genetic traits, which is more challenging to achieve with pasture
mating.

 Monitoring and Record-Keeping Challenges: Maintaining accurate

records of breeding dates and observing specific mating poses difficulties,
potentially leading to management inefficiencies.

Artificial insemination (AI)

This is a reproductive technology used in animal breeding and human fertility
treatments. It involves the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female's
reproductive tract by means other than natural mating. Artificial insemination can
also be defined as the taking of semen or spermatozoa from a male animal and
placing it in the vagina or uterus of a female animal on heat without natural
copulation or mating.

The process must be performed by trained personnel for it to be successful.

Advantages of artificial insemination

1. It prevents venereal diseases.

2. There is less wastage of semen or sperm.

3. It produces healthy offspring.

4. It saves breeders from the cost of buying and keeping more than one male
animal because one male can service many females.

5. It enables female animals which cannot be mounted to reproduce.

6. lt enables the farmer to select desired traits or characteristics in males.

7. The conception rate is increased by artificial insemination because of the

certainty of depositing the semen behind the cervix at the proper time.

8. It improves the general stock rapidly.

9. Semen held in cold storage can be stored for years and transported everywhere.

Disadvantages of artificial insemination

The time taken to travel from artificial insemination centers to scattered farms is
often too long to catch animals in heat.

1. Farmers may not be trained and have no experience to detect when female
animals are on heat.

2. There are inadequate facilities to carry out the process. This is due to the high
cost of the equipment
3. There is a silent heat period (i.e., little or no sign) found in Indigenous local
cattle.

4. it is difficult to restrain farm animals.

5. Storage of semen is difficult and may be affected by unfavorable conditions.

6. It requires more time and strict supervision of animals.

Hand Mating/Hand Breeding

Hand Mating involves leading females animal on heat to desirable or proven male
animal for mating or servicing.

Advantages of Hand Mating

1. It prevents indiscriminate mating

2. It reduces the spread of diseases

3. It results in the production of desirable offspring

4. It leads to accurate record keeping since mating is supervised.

5. It reduces risk of injury during pasture mating

Disadvantages of Hand Mating

1. Labour intensive leading to labour costs and time commitment

2. Stress on animal especially if the animals are not accustomed to human handling.

3. Some animals may not cooperate with hand mating leading to difficulty in
achieving successful mating

4. Limited breeding resulting from controlled mating by humans

5. Potential human error since there could be misjudge in timing, handling or

matching of pairs leading to unsuccessful mating.

Heat or oestrus in farm animals

Heat or estrous is defined as the period within the breeding or reproductive cycle
of a female farm animal when it comes to heat or is ready to accept a male for
mating. It is the period when the female produces a high level of oestrogen which
prepares her psychologically and physiologically for sexual activities. Ovulation
takes place during this period.

The signs of oestrus or heat in farm animals

1. Swelling and reddening of the vulva lips.

2. Restlessness or aggressiveness in the female.

3. Loss of appetite.

4. Sniffing of other animals.

5. Mounting on other animals.

6. Making unusual noise

7. Slimy discharge from the vulva.

8. The animal's temperature is abnormally high.

9. Animal urinates frequently.

10. There is more frequent tail shaking.

11. The female animal stands still for the male to mate with her.

12. There is a temporary drop in the milk yield of lactating cows.

13. The cervix becomes relaxed so that sperm can pass through to fertilize the
ovum.

14. Chin resting.

Symptoms of a pregnant ruminant

i) The Animal becomes dull.

ii) The animal does not show signs of heat

iii) Animals do not allow mating.

iv) The animal's stomach later swells.

Parturition

This is defined as the natural process of giving birth in farm animals. It signifies
the end of the pregnancy in the animal. Parturition involves the expulsion of the
fetus and its membranes from the uterus through genital tracts or vagina.

When parturition occurs in:

- cattle (cow), it is called calving;

-pig (sow), it is called farrowing;

-sheep (ewe), it is called lambing;

-goat (doe), it is called kidding.

Signs of parturition

When parturition (birth) is about to occur, animals will show the following signs;

i) The udder of the animal enlarges

ii) The breast become waxing in appearance

iii) The belly becomes distended in appearance and drops

iv) The vulva becomes relaxed or mucus discharged

v) There is frequent urination

vi) The animal may separate itself from the rest of the herd

HUSBANDRY PRACTICES

These practices are routine management performed to improve the productivity,

quality, and good health of livestock. Examples of husbandry practices performed
on ruminants:

·castration
·vaccination

·de-wormingh

·de-horning

·identification(marking)

·flushing

·culling

·drenching

·dipping

·docking.

Castration

Castration is the surgical procedure involving the removal of the testes or severing
of the spermatic cord in male animals to render them sexually unproductive. It
encompasses any intervention or therapy that disrupts the reproductive organs of
male animals, resulting in the inability to achieve successful reproduction.

The animal loses its libido after castration.

Instruments for castration

The subsequent instruments may be utilized in the castration of livestock:

- Sharp implement or scalpel

- Emasculator

- Burdizzo or castrator

- Rubber or elastic rings (band) or elastrator

- Callicrate (bander or loope)

Importance of castrating livestock

1. Castrated animals are generally more docile and manageable.

2. It prevents promiscuous mating and inbreeding.

3. The meat from castrated animals is typically more tender.

4. It helps in preventing the transmission of venereal diseases through mating.

5. Castrated animals experience accelerated growth.

6. Castration eliminates unpleasant odors in certain farm species.

Examples of livestock that can be castrated

- Sheep

- Goat

- Cattle

- Pig

- Rabbit

- Poultry birds

Types of castration

There are two types of castration namely:

1. Open castration

2. Closed castration

Open castration

This is sometimes referred to as bloody castration. lt involves the removal of the

testes from the scrotum of an animal, i.e. making a cut in the scrotal sac and
removing the testes from the male animal, lodine is applied to the cut surface

The processes involved in open castration

·The animal is restrained on its back so that the scrotum is within reach

The scrotum is washed with an antiseptic solution (e.g. alcohol) and wiped clean.
A clean, sharp knife or blade is used to cut open each half of the scrotum.

Each testis is pulled out of the the scrotumm and the spermatic cord is cut.

The cut spermatic cords are treated with iodine or an antiseptic powder and tied to
prevent excessive bleeding.

The incisions in the scrotum may be surgically sewn or allowed to heal on their
own.

Disadvantages of open (bloody) castration

1. It involves excessive bleeding.

2. There is a high rate of animal being infected

3 . It is very complicated.

Closed castration

This is also referred to as bloodless castration. Closed castration is aimed at the

avoidance of cutting open the scrotum of the animal to prevent possible infection
and excessive bleeding, There are three methods for closed castration namely:

(i) Ring or elastrator method.

(i)Burdizzo method.

(ii)Injection method

Ring method (elastrator method)

This method is used on every young animal.·It involves fitting a rubber band
(elastrator)tightly at the point of attachment of the scrotum to the body

This prevents blood flow to the testes and they will eventually die off.

Although this method of castration is quick and easy to use and does not require
sterilization or disinfection, it often exposes the animal to tetanus.

Burdizzo method
This process entails clamping the testicle's spermatic cords with a pair of burdizzo
forceps (also known as a castrator).

·It is always advisable to properly locate the spermatic cords by hand before
crushing them without 'split.

·Crushing each spermatic cord at two different places ensure high castration
success.

This treatment also causes the testicles to become non-functional.

Burdlizzo or castrator

Ways of maintaining burdizzo or castrator

•Grease or oil or lubricate periodically.

•Tighten screws regularly.

•Keep it at a cool and dry place or keep it from moist.

•Use it for the right purpose.

•Place it in a tool box or room.

•Clean it after use.

•Sharpen blade when blunt.

 The injection method

The injection method uses female hormones to 'feminize'a bull calf.

Dehorning

Dehorning is defined as the removal of horns in farm animals or livestock. The

horn in the bud stage may be removed when animal is about four days old, using
appropriate method to kill the horn bud.

Methods for dehorning

Some of the methods for dehorning are:

·the use of dehorning tubes,

·dehorning paste

•hot iron dehorners

•saws and clippers

•sodium sticks

•electric dehorner.

Disbudding iron

Reasons (significance) for dehorning

1. It reduce the danger of the farmer or herdsman being hurt by the animals

2. lt prevents animals from hurting each other

3. Less damage to equipment

4. It creates more room in the pen to move about

[Link] makes it easier to handie the animals in the farm

[Link] enhances easier transportation of animals

ldentification

Farm animaIs are marked for easy identification. The various methods for
identifying form animal are:

[Link].

2. Branding.

3. Ear notching/punching

4. Ear tagging.

5. Dyeing.

6. Clipping.

7. Banding.

8. Implantation.

Tattooing

It involves the use of special instruments to make marks or numbers on farm

animals for identification.

Branding

This involves the use of hot iron with a desired identification mark to superficially
burn off the skin of the animal leaving the mark permanent after healing.

Feeding of Ruminants and Grazing system

The cattle's diet must be carefully balanced to include all necessary nutrients for
optimal growth and production.

Due to their ruminant nature, cattle primarily consume roughages such as grasses
and legumes, given the unique structure of their stomach. Examples of grasses
suitable for cattle consumption include guinea grass, elephant grass, and giant star
grass, while leguminous plants like centrosema spp and calopogonium spp also
serve as viable feed options.

In addition to roughages, cattle can be supplemented with concentrated feed rich in

essential nutrients to ensure their dietary needs are met.

Cattle may partake in pastoral nomadism, a practice in which cattle herders, often
Fulanis, travel with their livestock in search of suitable pasture and water sources.
Alternatively, zero-grazing, involving the cutting and feeding of grasses to cattle
within their pens, may be employed.

Rotational grazing, where cattle are moved between paddocks to graze on fresh
pasture, is another common practice. During the dry season when green pastures
are scarce, cattle can be fed preserved feeds like hay, silage, and straw to sustain
their nutritional needs.

For dairy cattle, a higher concentration of feed is recommended compared to beef

cattle, as dairy cows require additional nutrients for milk production.

Effects or Malnutrition in Farm Animals

- Causes loss of weight

- Stunted growth

- General body weakness

- Dullness

- Reduced reproduction

- Poor formation of bones

- Loss of resistance to diseases

 Ration

Ration refers to the quantity or standard of food provided to an animal within a

given day or specific time frame.

Flushing

Flushing is the practice of augmenting the nutritional intake provided to the female
animal approximately two weeks prior to mating.

Colostrum

It is the milk produced by the mammary gland few days after delivery or child
birth. It is thin yellowish fluid rich in protein and antibodies.

Advantages or benefits from colostrum

[Link] is rich in nutrients such as proteins,and vitamins.

[Link] helps to prevent diseases in newly born animal. or it provides immunity and
antibodies

3. lt has a laxative effect or prevents constipation

4. It improves growth.

Steaming up

Steaming up is the practice of commencing to feed extra rations,especially of grain

and concentrates to late pregnant cows in an attempt to promote maximum milk
production from the very beginning of lactation. Feeding usually commences about
4 weeks before the due date for lactation.

Weaning

It is the act of separating the young animaIs from their mother to prevent suckling.

Advantages of weaning

1. lt encourages the young to feed on solid food

2. lt prepares the mother to be on heat in time.

3. lt reduces the incidence of mastitis in the mother.

4. The young ones grow faster.

Fodder

Fodder is a conserved forage in any form.

Straw

Grass or grass with legume is cut, dried, and stored.

Straw is not usually nutritious. It is merely fed to animals during the period of food
scarcity to maintain their live weight that is as a 'maintenance ration'.

Bloat

When a ruminant consumes succulent green legumes or feeds on mature grass with
a high fiber content, gases such as carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, hydrogen,
and oxygen accumulate in the reticulum and rumen. These gases are expelled by
the animal through belching. If the animal is unable to release these gases, the
stomach swells, resulting in a condition known as bloat.

Grazing

Grazing in livestock entails the process of animals consuming plants, typically

grasses and other vegetation, in a pasture. This innate feeding behavior involves
animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and horses moving around a designated area to
consume available plant material.

Grazing serves several key purposes:

 Provide Nutrition:Animals acquire essential nutrients necessary for growth,

reproduction, and overall health.

 Manage Pastures:Proper grazing practices can sustain healthy pastures by

regulating plant growth and fostering biodiversity.

 Reduce Feed Costs:Grazing diminishes the necessity for supplementary

feed, thereby reducing expenses for farmers.
  Enhance Soil Health:Grazing animals have the potential to enhance soil
fertility through their manure and the natural processes of plant growth and
decomposition.

The different forms of grazing include continuous grazing, rotational grazing, and
zero grazing.

Continuous grazing involves keeping livestock on a pasture for an extended

period. This method is typically used when it is not economically feasible to fence
off a natural pasture. The success of continuous grazing depends on the stocking
density, which refers to the number of animals per unit area of pasture. It is
commonly used in extensive livestock management systems.

Rotational grazing, also known as paddocking, entails moving animals from one
paddock (a section of pasture) to another. This method is utilized in intensive
livestock management systems to ensure uniform grazing and maximize pasture
efficiency.

Zero grazing, also known as silage, mechanical grazing, or the cut and carry
system, involves harvesting herbage to feed animals in a confined area. This
method includes providing fresh and green forage, such as grass, legumes, or
shrubs, to livestock. It also involves feeding conserved forage like hay and silage
to confined animals. Conserved forage in any form is commonly referred to as
fodder.

Advantages of zero-grazing

- More efficient utilization of forage or fodder leading to increased production.

- Better control of pests, parasites, and diseases.

- Prevention of bloat by allowing forage to wilt before feeding to animals.

- Reduced expenses due to the absence of fencing and watering points in the
pasture.

Disadvantages of zero-grazing:

 High costs associated with cutting and transporting forage to confined

animals.
  Labor-intensive requirements for providing bedding for animals.

 Challenges with manure disposal.

Hay

Hay refers to a dry forage (e.g dry grass,or legume ) conserved for use by
livestock at a future date. Hay crops may inlcude maize or sorghum.

Silage

Silage refers to fresh green forage (e.g fresh grass, or legume ) preserved by
partial fermentation for use by livestock at a later date. Silate crops crops may
inlcude maize or sorghum.

Differences between Hay and Silage

Hay Silage

Less acidic Highly acidic

Less Palatable Highly palatable

Not very green drier and dusty Has strong aroma

Has high vitamin D content Green and slightly wet

No laxative effect Has laxative effect

Topic 13 - Soil Conversation

Soil constitutes the weathered portion of loose organic and inorganic materials on
the earth's crust, where plants grow and life thrives.

Functions/Importance of Soil

 Soil serves as the primary source of nutrients crucial for plant growth and
development.

 It offers mechanical support to growing plants, both directly and indirectly.

  Provides air and water essential for plant sustenance.

 Acts as a habitat for a variety of micro and macroorganisms, including

bacteria, fungi, earthworms, and termites.

 Supplies air for root transpiration and the respiration of soil organisms.

Formation of Soil

Weathering initiates the process of soil formation and development on parent

materials, culminating in the creation of the final soil.

Factors influencing weathering and soil formation include

1. Climatic factors such as temperature, rainfall, and wind.

2. Biological factors encompassing humans, plants, and animals.

3. Topography.

4. Parent materials.

5. Time.

Components of Soil

A well-developed soil comprises the following components:

1. Inorganic matter or mineral salts.

2. Water.

3. Air.

4. Organic matter (humus).

5. Living organisms (plants and animals).

6. Soil particles.

Principles of Soil and Soil Water Conservation

Soil resources refer to the physical and chemical materials within the soil that
support optimal plant growth.
Soil conservation includes all efforts aimed at preserving, enhancing, or
safeguarding the soil and its resources, including preventing and rectifying soil
degradation.

The principles of soil conservation involve employing sound farming practices,

appropriate tillage methods, manure utilization, erosion prevention, and other
treatments to protect the soil and ensure sustainable crop production.

Methods of Conserving Soil

1. Contour ploughing.

2. Strip cultivation.

3. Terracing.

4. Mulching.

5. Afforestation.

6. Storm drains.

7. Application of manure or fertilizer (soil conditioning).

8. Avoiding bush burning.

9. Preventing overgrazing.

[Link] rotation.

[Link].

[Link] cropping.

[Link] fallowing or shifting cultivation.

Soil Water Conservation

The judicious management of water within the soil, whether in a combined,

absorbed, or free state, to ensure an adequate water supply for plants without
upsetting the natural balance is known as water conservation. Water conservation
aims to balance the supply and loss of soil water to maintain agricultural
productivity.

Methods of Conserving Soil Water:

1. Adding humus or organic manure to improve water-holding capacity.

2. Preventing or reducing surface water runoff.

3. Mulching.

4. Cover cropping.

5. Timely weeding.

6. Avoiding deforestation.

7. Encouraging reforestation.

8. Implementing appropriate tillage methods.

9. Contour ploughing.

[Link] suitable irrigation systems.

[Link].

Importance of Soil Water

1. Soil water dissolves soluble mineral salts for plant absorption.

2. Maintains turgidity in plant cells to prevent wilting.

3. Provides optimal moisture for seed germination.

4. Helps regulate soil temperature through evaporation.

5. Serves as a water source for soil-dwelling organisms.

6. Essential for plant growth and development.

7. Required for plant photosynthesis.

Classification of Soil Nutrients

Numerous chemical elements are deemed crucial or indispensable for the optimal
growth and development of crop plants. These indispensable elements, also known
as essential nutrients, encompass the following:

1. Carbon (C)

2. Oxygen (O)

3. Hydrogen (H)

4. Nitrogen (N)

5. Phosphorus (P)

6. Potassium (K)

7. Sulphur (S)

8. Calcium (Ca)

9. Magnesium (Mg)

[Link] (Fe)

[Link] (Mn)

[Link] (Cu)

[Link] (Co)

[Link] (B)

[Link] (Mo)

[Link] (Zn)

[Link] (Cl)

Rationale for their classification as essential plant nutrients

1. They directly participate in the physiological functions of growing plants.

2. Their deficiencies lead to abnormalities or injuries in plants, known as

deficiency symptoms, which aid in diagnosing the issue.
 3. Correcting the deficiency symptoms necessitates the provision of the lacking
nutrient.

Macronutrients and micronutrients

The essential plant nutrients are categorized into two groups:

1. Macronutrients or primary nutrients.

2. Micronutrients or secondary nutrients.

Macronutrients or primary nutrients

These are chemical elements required in substantial quantities for the effective
functioning of plants.

Examples of macronutrients:

1. Nitrogen (N)

2. Phosphorus (P)

3. Potassium (K)

4. Sulphur (S)

5. Calcium (Ca)

6. Magnesium (Mg)

Micronutrients or secondary nutrients

Also referred to as trace elements, these are chemical elements needed in minute
amounts for the growth or normal operation of plants. Oversupplying plants with
micronutrients can result in toxicity and eventual plant death.

Examples of micronutrients:

1. Manganese (Mn)

2. Copper (Cu)

3. Cobalt (Co)
 4. Boron (B)

5. Molybdenum (Mo)

6. Zinc (Zn)

7. Chlorine (Cl)

8. Iron (Fe)

Sources of plant nutrients

Both macronutrients and micronutrients, along with other essential nutrients

utilized by plants for various functions, such as fluorine (F), iodine (I), sodium
(Na), and silicon (Si), can be supplied to plants through:

1. Inorganic minerals in the soil

2. Organic matter in the soil

3. Organic manure added to the soil

4. Nitrogenous fertilizers like urea added to the soil

5. Nitrogen introduced to the soil through the nitrogen cycle

Other plant nutrients like carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) are primarily
obtained from the air and soil water.

Soil Fertility and Productivity.

SOIL FERTILITY AND PRODUCTIVITY

Soil fertility - Soil fertility is defined as a measure of the soil's ability or capacity
to supply all the necessary nutrients or minerals needed by plants for growth or
development.

Fertile soil is defined as soil that contains all the necessary nutrients or minerals
needed by plants for growth or development. Fertile soil can also be defined as the
soil that supports a plant's healthy growth or development. This means that one
type of soil can be fertile for some crops but not fertile for other crops. For
example, loamy soil is fertile for maize but not fertile for sugar cane.
 Characteristics or qualities of fertile soil

1. It should have good water or moisture retention capacity.

2. It should be well aerated.

3. It should have the correct proportion of soil particles (good soil texture or
structure).

4. It should have good drainage ability.

5 It should have adequate mineral nutrients.

6. It should have sufficient humus or organic matter.

7. It has no significant injurious or toxic substances.

8. It should have a low leaching capacity.

9. It should have a favorable pH

10. It should have a sufficient supply of micro-organisms.

Soil Productivity - This term refers to the capacity of the soil to support specific
plants within a well-managed system. It can also be described as the combined
influence of soil fertility and soil management in producing specific crops.
Therefore, fertile soil does not automatically equate to productive soil. For instance,
the rich black soil of must be effectively managed to exhibit productivity. In
essence, soil must possess fertility to exhibit productivity, but fertility alone does
not guarantee productivity.

Distinguishing features or qualities of productive soil

 Soil fertility is a prerequisite, yet not all fertile soils are productive.

 The productivity of soil is influenced by the type of crop cultivated. For

example, a soil may be productive for a crop with low nutrient requirements but
unsuitable for a crop with high nutrient demands. Additionally, certain crops
thrive in acidic soil and are productive in such conditions, while others struggle
to grow in acidic environments.
 Conditions that hinder fertile soil from being productive

- Nutrients that are unable to dissolve or inaccessible to crops due to leaching.

- Farming methods employed.

- Lack of oxygen for crop roots.

- Insufficient water or prolonged drought.

- Planting crops too deep or beyond the nutrient-rich layers of soil.

- Inadequate nutrients in the soil to meet crop requirements.

- Waterlogging.

- Presence of weeds on the farm.

- Unsuitable temperature.

- Erosion.

Factors contributing to the depletion of soil nutrients

The depletion of soil nutrients leads to a decline in soil fertility, primarily due to
human activities. These activities that result in the loss of soil fertility are detailed
below.

Deforestation - Deforestation involves the removal or cutting down of trees, often

for activities such as excessive logging, road construction, and human settlements
like cities and villages.

Burning of vegetation before cropping - This harmful agricultural practice aims

to reduce labor by burning plant material, which releases smoke and consumes
essential minerals like phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur. Soil organisms critical for
decomposition and aeration are also destroyed, leading to erosion.

Overcropping:Continuous cultivation without fallow periods depletes soil

nutrients, resulting in deficiencies that affect crop growth.

Leaching - The downward movement of minerals in soil beyond the reach of

plants due to rainwater, causing nutrient loss and reduced soil fertility.
Surface compaction - Compression of the soil surface impedes water and air
penetration, reducing oxygen availability for plant roots and soil organisms,
ultimately hindering nutrient absorption and water uptake.

Excessive fertilizer use - Over application of inorganic fertilizers can lead to soil
acidity, diminishing soil organism activity and nutrient availability, hindering crop
growth.

Overgrazing - Uncontrolled grazing activities by animals cause soil erosion,

compaction, and the destruction of soil structure, leading to decreased soil fertility.

Surface mining and quarrying - Removal of topsoil during mining operations

depletes soil nutrients, alters soil structure, and increases erosion, negatively
impacting soil fertility.

Improper irrigation and drainage practices - Poor irrigation can lead to flooding,
washing away topsoil nutrients, causing erosion and leaching, rendering the soil
infertile.

Poor farming and tillage methods - Inadequate farming practices result in soil
compaction, organic matter loss, disrupted soil structure, and erosion, all of which
reduce soil fertility.

Dumping of non-biodegradable waste - Non-biodegradable waste blocks water

infiltration, leading to soil surface accumulation and waterlogging, which kills soil
microorganisms essential for nutrient recycling and soil fertility.

Erosion - Surface runoff during erosion washes away plant nutrients from the
topsoil, depleting soil fertility.

Maintaining Soil Fertility

Various methods can be employed to maintain or renew soil fertility, including:

Cover Cropping - Planting specific crops to cover the soil surface, preventing
erosion, conserving moisture, improving soil structure, and providing organic
matter.

Crop Rotation - Growing different crops over time on the same land to preserve
soil fertility and prevent erosion.
Manure Application - Adding organic material to the soil to enhance humus
content, aeration, soil structure, and nutrient availability.

Fertilizer Application - Directly supplementing the soil with fertilizers to replace

lost minerals, enhancing soil fertility and crop yield.

Irrigation - Artificially watering soil to support plant growth, ensuring nutrient

availability and improved yield.

Bush Following or Shifting Cultivation - Allowing land to revert to bush after

years of cultivation to restore fertility, typically after a 10-year interval.

Strip Cropping - Planting crops along the slope contours with cover crops to
reduce erosion.

Terracing - Constructing ridges and channels to prevent rainfall runoff, erosion,

and nutrient loss.

Mixed Cropping - Planting different crops on the same land to improve soil
fertility and structure.

Mixed Farming - simultaneous raising animals and growing crops to enhance soil
fertility with animal waste.

Mulching - Covering the soil surface with organic material to preserve moisture,
improve soil structure, and deter weeds.

Mulching is the practice of covering the soil surface with a layer of materials
known as mulch. This layer of material can be applied to bare soil or around
existing plants.

Mulch is usually but not exclusively organic in nature, although it can also be
permanent, such as plastic or polythene sheeting. Mulches made of manure or
compost will naturally integrate into the soil through the activity of worms and
other organisms, significantly enhancing soil productivity.

Examples of materials that can be used for mulching include ground corn cobs,
palm fronds, dry grass, organic manure, straw, polythene or plastic materials,
pebbles or stones, wood shavings, tree bark or wood chips, newspaper or cardboard,
beet moss, and banana or plantain leaves.
 The benefits of mulching in soil conservation are

 Mulching helps minimize soil erosion.

 It enriches the soil with nutrients as it decomposes.

 Mulching assists in regulating soil temperature by cooling the soil.

 It improves soil structure and texture, thereby enhancing water holding

capacity and drainage.

 Mulching suppresses weed growth, preventing nutrient uptake.

 It reduces soil water loss by retaining moisture in the root zone.

 Mulching maintains soil moisture levels and promotes microbial activity.

Reforestation

This entails the strategic replanting of trees on both flat terrain and sloped areas
that have been previously used for agriculture or deforested for timber. This
practice serves to mitigate water flow and prevent erosion caused by water.

Liming

The process of liming involves the addition of specific calcium compounds or

ashes to the soil to neutralize acidity levels.

The following activities can be implemented to enhance soil fertility and

health:

 Prevention of bush burning

 Utilization of leguminous crops to fix nitrogen

 Tillage to improve soil aeration

The benefits of liming include

-Improved soil structure

- Enhanced efficiency of agrochemicals such as herbicides

 - Better performance of soil microorganisms and macroorganisms

- Control of soil-borne plant diseases

- Increased absorption and utilization of essential elements like potassium and

calcium

-Correction of soil acidity to a level conducive for plant growth

Materials commonly used for liming include

- limestone

- slaked lime

- quicklime

- wood ash and

- calcium hydrogen carbonate.

Crop Rotation

This is a system of farming where different types of crops are grown on the same
piece of land in a definite order cycle or sequence or from season to season.

Crop Rotation Program

crop rotation is a special schedule in crop production in which the farmer grows a
set of different crops in a definite sequence on the same piece of land over a
number The table below shows a four-year crop rotation program using cowpea,
cassava, tomato, and maize.
 Principles of crop rotation programme

The principles that must be followed in planning a crop rotation program are:

1. crops with deep roots should be followed by crops with shallow roots crops that
use more nutrients should be followed by crops that use fewer nutrients.

2. crops of the same family such as rice and maize should not follow each other.

4. a fallow period should be included in the crop rotation program.

5. Legumes such as soyabean and cowpea or green manure crops should be

included in the cycle.

Advantages of crop rotation

1. Nutrients in the soil are efficiently used by crops since crops with different root
systems are made to follow each other.

2. Soil fertility is maintained because of the inclusion of leguminous plants or the

fallow period.

3. Cycles of diseases are disrupted or diseases are controlled.

4. Cycles of pests are disrupted or pests are controlled

5. There is a reduction in labor use. For example, there is no frequent land clearing.

6. It controls soil erosion

7. There is a reduction in the risk of total crop failure

8. Crop production is possible on a piece of land for a longer period.

Benefits of including legumes in crop rotation

The benefits of including legumes in crop rotation are:

1. Increases the fertility of soil.

2. Improves the nitrogen status of the soil.

3. Breaks pest cycle.

4. Breaks disease cycles.

5. They smother weeds.

6. They control soil erosion when used as cover crops.

Fertilizer application

Fertilizer is defined as any substance or material either liquid, powder, or pellets

that is applied to the soil to supply plants nutrients. Alternatively, the term fertilizer
embraces all the substances, organic or inorganic that can be added to the soil to
replenish its fertility or enrich it.

Fertilizer can be either organic material or inorganic (chemical) material. Organic

material (manure) or chemical fertilizer may be added to the soil to maintain or
renew the soil fertility.

Types of fertilizers

There are two main types namely:

1. Organic fertilizers (Manure)

2. Inorganic fertilizers (Chemical fertilizer)

Organic fertilizers or manure

Manure is an organic fertilizer or organic matter. Manuring is therefore the

addition of organic matter into the soil.

Sources of organic matter

- Dead plant materials or crop residue.

- Green manure.

- Dead soil microorganisms or bacteria or fungi or protozoa.

- Compost.

- Remains of dead soil macro-organisms or worms or insects or rodents or remains

of dead animals.

- Human waste or night soil or sewage.

- Farmyard manure or animal droppings.

Chemical fertilizer or inorganic fertilizer

Chemical fertilizer is also referred to as inorganic fertilizer. Chemical or inorganic

fertilizer is defined as any man-made chemical substance that is added to the soil to
release nutrients for plant use. They are mixtures of pure chemicals ([Link]
salts).

They can be added directly to the soil to replace the lost minerals through cropping.
Examples of inorganic or chemical fertilizers.

The following are examples of fertilizers and the most widely used potassium
fertilizer in Ghana is muriate of potash.

1. Urea

2. Ammonium nitrate

3. Sulphate of ammonia
4. N.P.K.

5. Single Superphosphate

6. Triple Superphosphate

7. Ammonium phosphate

8. Anhydrous ammonia

9. Nitrate of soda

10. Ammonium nitrate

11. Calcium Cyanamide

12. Muriate of potash

13. Sulphate of potash

Classification of inorganic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers can be classified into two groups according to the number of
the three major or macro-nutrients (NPK) supplied to the plant.

The two groups are:

1. Single or simple fertilizers

2. Compound or mixed fertilizers

Single or simple fertilizers

Single or simple fertilizers are those containing only one of the three major plant
nutrient elements or plant food (NPK). They are also known as straight fertilizers.

Examples of single or simple fertilizers

1. Sulphate of ammonia

2. Urea

3. Muriate of potash
 Further classification of single fertilizers

Single or straight fertilizers can be divided into three classes according to the major
nutrients (NPK) they contain.

They may be

-Nitrogenous fertilizers [Link] sulfatee

-Potash(potassium) fertilizers [Link] of potash

-Phosphatic fertilizers [Link] phosphate

Compound or mixed fertilizers

Compound fertilizers contain two or three major plant nutrients (NPK) in

reasonable proportion.

Those compound fertilizers containing all three major nutrient elements are called
complete fertilizers. Examples of complete fertilizers are NPK fertilizer 15:15:15
and 20:20:20.

Those compound fertilizers containing only two of the Major nutrient elements are
called incomplete fertilizers [Link] fertilizer 20:0:20 (where N and K are present
but no P).

NPK 15 15 0 fertilizer(here N and Pare present but no K)

Advantage of compound fertilizers over single fertilizers

The main advantage of compound fertilizer over single fertilizers is the nutrient
requirements of the soil can be met with only one application. This saves energy,
time, and cost.

Disadvantages or harmful effects of inorganic (chemical) fertilizers

1. If the inorganic fertilizers are not used correctly they are injurious to soil-living
organisms or crops.

2. Over-application could kill the young roots of plants.

3. They leach easily

4. They increase soil acidity.

5. They destroy soils structure thereby affecting soil productivity.

Methods of Fertilizer Application

1. Broadcasting - The fertilizer is uniformly spread by hand or by machine over

the bed or field usually before planting of crops.

2. Drilling method - The fertilizer is applied with a drill at the same time as the
seed is sown

3. Ring method - The fertilizer is applied in a circular way equidistant from the
plant. The fertilizer is not made to touch the plant.

4. Foliar method or spraying method - Special liquid fertilizer is diluted to the

required concentration before it is applied to the leaf of some plants

5. Plough Soil method - The fertilizer is placed in a continuous band at the bottom
of the plow furrow. Each band is covered as the succeeding furrows are turned
over.

6. Side dressing - Here, the fertilizers are placed along rows of plants or between
rows or around individual plants. The fertilizer is applied as a second application to
a plant already grown in the field.

Advantages of organic fertilizers over inorganic fertilizers

The relative advantages of organic fertilizers (organic manure)over inorganic

fertilizers are

i) Organic fertilizers improve the structure of the soil (i.e. improves both fertility
and physical conditions of the soil)

ii) Organic fertilizers make the soil less compacted and thus increase the amount of
air in the soil, aiding the up-take of minerals.

iii) Organic fertilizers help the soil to retain water.

iv) Organic fertilizers release nutrients slowly into the soil and hence remaining in
the soil for a long time (organfertilizersers have a more lasting effect) in the soil.
v) Organic fertilizers enhance the growth of micro-organisms but inorganic
fertilizers destroys some of them.

vi) Organic fertilizers when applied help soil to resist leaching but soils with
inorganic fertilizers easily leach.

vii) Organic fertilizers are relatively cheaper than inorganic fertilizers.

viii) Organic fertilizers supply both micros and macronutrients while inorganic
fertilizers supply only macro elements.

ix) Organic fertilizers can serve as mulch for soils but inorganic fertilisers cannot
serve this purpose.

x) The application of organic fertilizer requires no expert care but with inorganic
fertilizers special care must be taken in order not to damage crops.

xi) Prolong application of organic fertilizers does not cause pollution but chemical
fertilizers can cause pollution of soil, surrounding water bodies and also acidity of
the soil.

Advantages of inorganic fertilizers over organic fertilizers

Inorganic fertilizers have the following relative advantages over organic manures.

ii) Nutrient elements of inorganic fertilizers are readily available to crops without
going through decomposition.

iii) Inorganic fertilizers are less difficult to transport.

ii) Organic manures are more difficult to transport because of their heavy bulky

nature

iv) Inorganic fertilizers can easily be analyzed to determine or quantify their

nutrient content but organic manures cannot be analyzed.

v) Easy to supply the right quantities and types of nutrients of inorganic fertilizers
but difficult in the case of organic manure since these types and quantities are not

easily detectable in organic fertilizers (Inorganics have fixed nutrient compositions

which can be regulated but organics do not have fixed / constant composition).
vi) Inorganic fertilizers are usually free from weeds, seeds, and disease pathogens
but

organics sometimes contain seeds, weeds, and disease pathogens.

Advantage of compound fertilizers over single fertilizers

The main advantage is that one single application of compound fertilizer can meet
nutrient requirements of the soil hence time, cost, and energy saving.

The role of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in plants.

If plants are to grow successfully year after year then the three macro' essential
elements which they obtain from soluble compounds in the soil (nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium) must be replaced by the application of fertilizers.

The table below. indicates the role of these nutrients in plants.

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the removal of the topsoil and its nutrients from one place to another
by wind or water. During the dry season, strong harmattan winds blow across West
Africa from the Sahara Desert. The wind carries away loose dry soil particles from
one place to another. This is referred to as erosion by wind. When it rains and
when water moves fast on the land the moving water carries the soil from one point
to another. This is referred to as erosion by water.

Types of soil erosion

1. Sheet erosion

2. Splash erosion

3. Rill erosion

4. Gully erosion

Sheet Erosion

It usually occurs along gentle slopes. The soil is removed and washed almost
uniformly along the slopes. This usually occurs during heavy rainfall and when
water moves very fast along the slope. When sheet erosion occurs, you do not see
any gutters because the soil on the surface is eaten away uniformly and gradually
thereby could only be noticed over a longer period. This causes the collapse of
many buildings in the villages.

Splash/Raindrop Erosion

Splash/Raindrop Erosion occurs when the impact of raindrops on the surface of the
soil causes the soil particles to be lifted and carried away from their normal
position.

Rill Erosion

These are the shallow, wavy, and narrow channels formed along a hillside. It is
caused by light rainfall when water runs along the slope at a slow rate and carries
soil down the hill.

Gully Erosion

These are deep, steep-sided channels along hillsides formed as a result of the
deepening of rills as rainwater flows rapidly through them.

Causes of soil erosion

1. Rainfall

2. Topography of the land.

3. Soil susceptibility.

4. Overgrazing of the land

5. Bush fires or bush burning

6. Deforestation

7. Continuous cultivation on a piece of land

8. Improper irrigation and drainage system

9. Surface mining and quarrying

10. Poor farming and tillage methods

 Effects of soil erosion

1. It depletes soil fertility making it unsuitable for cultivation.

2. It alters the shape of the land.

3. It eats away the soil around plants and consequently the plants fall when the
wind blows. It can also uproot shallow-rooted plants.

4. The eroded materials are deposited in streams, rivers, and small dams thus
causing siltation

5. In wind erosion, farmers and their livestock may suffer from eye and respiratory
problems from clouds of dust.

6. The dust particles from wind erosion may cover the surface of crop leaves and
impair carbon dioxide assimilation and the reception of sunlight for photosynthesis.

Prevention and control of soil erosion

1. Strip cropping.

2. Terracing.

3. Contour plowing or Ploughing against the slope

4. Mulching.

5. Re-afforestation.

6. Growing of cover crops (cover cropping)

7. Growing trees to serve windbreaks in checking wind erosion.

8. Avoidance of bush fires or burning.

9. Construction of water channels or good drainage system.

10. Avoiding overgrazing

11. Crop rotation.

12. Addition of organic manure

13. Trash farming.

Effects of soil erosion on agriculture or soil productivity

1. Soil erosion removes fertile topsoil rich in nutrients and organic matter, leaving
less productive soil unable to support plant growth.

2. Nutrient-cycling microbes in topsoil are removed by erosion, reducing soil

fertility and agricultural productivity.

3. Erosion destroys soil binding materials and washes away nutrients, breaking soil
structure and reducing productivity.

Topic 14: Sound Energy

Sound is a form of wave motion that is transported /propagated through a medium

from a vibrating body to a listener.

Sound is a mechanical wave which means it requires a medium to travel. This

medium could be gas, liquid, or solid. Sound is a form of a wave.

Wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and enables energy to be

transferred from one point to another without particles of the medium being
transferred.

Importance of wave

i) Waves on the sea help us to enjoy swimming and sailing

ii) Radio waves enables us to transfer information and messages

iii) Rays and gammar rays are used in medicine.

iv) Microwaves provide energy for cooking

v) Soundness provides nice tunes for music

vi) Soundness helps us to hear.

Classification of Waves

We can classify waves based on two criteria.

1. Based on Medium of Propagation

2. Direction of Travel.

Based on Medium of Propagation

Based on medium of transmission, there are two types of waves namely;

Mechanical waves and Electromagnetic waves.

a) Mechanical waves are those types of waves that require material medium for
propagation. E. g. Water waves, sound waves, waves in stretched strings and
springs. Mechanical waves travel at low speeds.

b) Electromagnetic waves - These are waves that do not require a material medium
for their propagation. E. g X-rays, infrared radiation, light waves, radio waves, and
grammar rays.

Direction of Travel.

Based on the direction of travel, we have Transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

1. Longitudinal waves - This is a wave that travel in a direction parallel to the

direction of the disturbance/vibration causing the wave. E. g sound wave, tsunami
waves, and microphone waves.

2. Transverse waves - These are waves that travel perpendicular to the direction
or vibration causing the wave. E. g. Light waves, radio waves, and water waves.

Sources of Sound

The instruments for producing sound can be categorized into three.

1. Wind/Pipe Instrument.

2. Stringed/rod instrument

3. Percussion instruments.

Wind Instruments

Examples are ; pipe organ, pianica, trombones, harmonica, clarinet, trumpet, flute,
saxophone, whistle, tubas etc
 Stringed Instruments

Examples are; violine, double bass, mandolin, cello, guitar, banjo, viola sitar etc.

Percussion Instruments

Examples are; drums, tuning fork, bell, gong, xylophone, frikyiwa, triangle, anvil,
cymbal etc.

A Graph of displacement against distance for particles in a simple harmonic waves

motion.

Definition of terms associated with wave motion

Crest - It is the highest point where a vibrating particle is displaced.

Trough - This is the lowest point where a vibrating particle is displaced.

Wavelength (ʎ) - It is the distance between two crest or trough

Period (T) - it is time taken for any wave particle to under one complete
oscillation. It is calculated as T= 1/f.
Frequency - It is the number of complete oscillations that any wave particle
undergoes in one second. It is calculated as f=1/T

Amplitude (a) - It is the greatest of any vibrating particle from its equilibrium or
mean position during one oscillation. It is measured in meters.

Speed/Velocity - It is the distance travelled by the wave in one second. It is

calculated as V=ʎ × f

Worked Examples

NB: 100cm =1m, 1000000 MHz = 1Hz, 1kHz = 1000Hz

1. A wave of frequency 500Hz and wavelenght 50m is travelling through medium.

Determine the speed of the wave.

Soln

Frequency, f = 500Hz, Wavelenght, ʎ =50m , Velocity, v = ?

Velocity, V = Wavelenght, ʎ × frequency, f

V = 50 ×500

V = 25000 ms-1

2. The velocity of sound is 500m/s. If the wavelenght of sound is 0.2m, calculate

its frequency.

Soln

Velocity, v =500ms-1 ,Wavelenght, ʎ = 0.2m, Frequency, f =?

Frequency, f = Velocity, v / Wavelenght, ʎ

f = 500/0.2

f = 2500Hz

3. The frequency of a sound wave is [Link] its moves with a velocity of 8m/s.
What is the wavelenght of the wave?

Soln
Velocity, v = 8m/s, Frequency, f = 20Hz, Wavelenght, ʎ =?

Wavelenght, ʎ = Velocity, v / Frequency, f

ʎ = 8 / 20

ʎ = 0.4m

4. The wave generated by a radio station transmitting at a frequency of 100MHz

has a wavelenght of 3m. Calculate the velocity of the wave.

Soln

frequency, f = 100MHz = 1× 10 -4 Hz, Wavelenght, ʎ = 3m, Velocity, v = ?

Velocity, V = Wavelenght, ʎ × frequency, f

V = 3 / 1× 10 -4

V = 30000 ms-1

5. Find the wavelenght of a sound wave of frequency 1kHz, if the velocity of

sound in air is 330m/s.

Soln

frequency, f = 1kHz = 1000Hz, Velocity, V = 330m, frequency, f =?

Wavelenght, ʎ = Velocity, v / Frequency, f

ʎ = 330 / 1000

ʎ = 0.33m

6. The wavelenght of a transverse wave is 1.5m. If the frequency of the wave is

10Hz i) What is the distance between successive crest?

ii) Calculate the velocity of the wave.

iii) Calculate the time for one complete vibration to take place.

Soln

frequency, f = 10Hz, Velocity, v = 1.5ms-1,

i) Wavelenght, ʎ = Velocity, v / Frequency, f

ʎ = 1.5m

ii) Velocity, V = Wavelenght, ʎ × frequency, f

V = =1.5 × 10

V = 15ms-1

ii) Period, T = 1/f

T = 1/10

T = 0.1s

NB: Period is the time taken for one complete oscillation/vibration to take place.

7. What is the frequency of the radio station broadcasting with a wavelenght of

60m? Assuming the velocity of the radio wave is 3.0 × 108 ms-1.

Soln

frequency, f = Velocity, v / Wavelenght, ʎ

f = 3.0 × 108 / 60

f = 5.0 × 107 Hz

8. If the sound travelling in air is assumed to be at a velocity of 3.40 ms-1, what

will be the wavelenght of the sound wave with frequency of 512Hz?

Wavelenght, ʎ = Velocity, v / Frequency, f

ʎ = 3.40 / 512

ʎ = 6.640625× 10-3

Experiment to demonstrate the necessity of air or other material medium in

the transmission of sound

- An electric bell hanging from a rubber band inside a bell jar is connected to a
battery and a switch as shown in the figure below.
- The bell jar is connected to a vacuum pump and when the key is closed the bell is
heard ringing. While the bell is ringing, the air is gradually removed from the jar
by the vacuum pump.

- The sound from the electric bell gradually dies down, as the air becomes less and
less dense. No sound is heard

- When all the air in the jar is removed. This shows that sound cannot be
propagated in a vacuum (sound needs a material medium for its transmission).
 Properties of Sound

Sound waves can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted.

Reflection - Sound waves can be reflected off materials. This means, it can bounce
back when it falls on a smooth hard surface. The reflection is called echo.

Refracted - Sound waves can be refracted. This means, it can change in direction
when it travels from one medium to another.

Diffracted - This means, sound waves can spread out when it meets an obstacle.

Music & Noise

A music is a produced by a sound of regular frequency or pitch while noise is the

combination of irregular frequency.

Differences between music and noise

Music Noise

1. Pleasant to the ears 1. Unpleasant to the ears

2. It is combination of regular frequency 2. It is combination of irregular

frequency

3. Particles vibrate in the same phase 3. Particles vibrate out of phase.

Characteristics of a Musical Note

- Pitch of the sound

- Loudness of the sound

- Quality of the sound/musical notes.

1. Pitch of the sound - This depends on the frequency. High pitch notes (sound)
have higher frequency. Low pitch sound have low frequency.

2. Loudness of the sound - This depends on the intensity of energy or sound that
is transmitted. Sound is louder when it has greateer amplitude and vice versa.
3. Quality of the sound/musical notes - This is called [Link] quality of
musical note is due to the number and combination of harmonics and overtones
that it contains.

Echoes and Ultrasound

Echoes are refelected sound wave from a smooth hard surface.

Usese of Echo

i) Echoes are used in determining the velocity of sound in air

ii) Echoes are used in oil exploration

iii) Echoes are used in determining the thickness of polar ice cap.

iv) Echoes are used by bat to detect objects

v) Echoes are used to determine the depth of a sea.

vi) Echoes are used in surgical operation

vii) Echoes are used to determine shoal of fish

viii) Echoes are used to determine the position of ship wreck

Formation of Echoes

Echoes are formed when sound waves hit a hard material and are reflected back.

Disadvantages of Echo

Echoes make hearing difficult in an auditorium as it interferes with the original

sound hence makes it undesirable.

Ultrasound Waves

Ultrasound waves are made up of waves which have too high frequencies to be
detected by the human ear.

Uses of Ultrasound
i) Ultrasound is used in medicine for example to check progress of foetus or
looking for tumours.

ii) Ultrasound is used at sea in fishing boats to detect shoals of fish.

iii) Ultrasound is used at sea to detect submarines and to measure depth of the sea.

iv) Ultrasound is used in cleaning for example scientific apparatus and very old
and expensive materials.

v) Ultrasound is used by animals such as bats to fly and also catch flying insects.

Doppler effect

Doppler effect is the apparent change in pitch/frequency of sound as a result of the

relative motion between the source of sound and an observer.

When sound approaches an observer, the pitch is perceived to be higher.

Conversely, as the sound recedes from the observer, the pitch appears to lower.

Taking an ambulance as an illustration, when it emits a continuous horn sound and

passes by an observer, the pitch is initially high as it approaches, then decreases as
it nears the observer, and further diminishes as it moves past and departs (resulting
in an apparent change in the horn's pitch as the vehicle passes).

This phenomenon, where the pitch changes as the sound source moves relative to
the observer, is known as the Doppler Effect.

Applications of Doppler Effect

i) Doppler Effect is used to detect approaching and receding sounds

ii) Doppler Effect is used in calculating or showing that, stars and other bodies in
the univers are moving away from each [Link] is red shift.

iii) Doppler Effect is used by policemen to check and detect speeding of cars by
the of radar

iv) Help bats and some other animals by the use of ultrasounds to find their way
and to locate their prey.

Resonance
Resonance is a phenomenon by which a body is made to vibrate at its natural
frequency by another body also vibrating at the same frequency. Examples seats
rattle in a car when it reaches a certain speed.

Here, seats vibrate at their natural frequency because of vibrations produced by the
engine of the bus.

Also, soldiers matching across a bridge may make the bridge vibrate. Frequency of
their marching steps is at the natural frequency of the bridge.

Topic 15: Electrical Energy

Static electricity or electric charge is defined as electricity at rest or electricity on

charged bodies.

Static electricity is created when an object gives up or gains electrons. This kind of
charge is called 'static because it is not moving along a wire or a conductor.

Uses of Static Electricity

1. Static electricity is used in paint spraying

2. Static electricity is used in photocopying

3. Static electricity is used in dust precipitation.

Reasons why if your hair is dry and you quickly take off your hat, your hair
may stand up.

When you take off your hat quickly from your head, it rubs against your hair and
electrons move from your hair to the hat. Each hair strand becomes positively
charged and repelled each other. The hair moves as far away from each other as
possible causing them to stand up and spread out.

How can we make a charged object lose its charge

By touching it with our hands or another object.

Dangers associated with static electricity.

1. lt causes lightning.
 2. It causes fire or explosion around flammable substances ([Link]).

What is lightning?

Lightning is defined as a natural phenomenon involving an electrical discharge (or

great sparks) accompanied by thunder, usually occurring during a thunderstorm.

Problems or effects of lightning

(i) It may cause damage to properties.

(i) It may lead to loss of life.

Current Electricity

Current electricity is defined as the flow of electric charges through a conductor or

wire.

Sources of current electricity

The electricity that we use in our homes, factories, offices, and other places is
generated through the following sources:

1. Hydroelectric power source (e.g., from Akosombo Dam).

2. Photoelectric source.

3. Thermoelectric source.

4. Dry cells and wet cells i.e.,.e batteries).

5. Generators.

6. Solar power source (Solar panel).

7. Winpowerer source.

[Link] power source.

9. Tidal power source.

10. Thermal power source.

11. Nuclear power source.

 DIRECT CURRENT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Direct current(DC) - Direct current is defined as an electric current that flows in

only one direction. When direct current flows at a constant value through a coil, it
produces a magnetic field whose size and polarity do not change.

Direct current does not induce EMF in any other coil or conductor within its
magnetic field apart from the coil it is flowing through.

Graph of Direct Current with Time

Alternating Current (AC) - Alternating Current is defined as an electric current

that continuously changes its direction of flow by moving forward and backward.

When an alternating current is flowing through a coil, it produces a magnetic field

whose shape and polarity change continuously.

When such current flows an emf can be induced in any other coil or conductor
within the magnetic field
 Graph of alternating current with time

Electrical rectification - Alternating current (AC) can be converted into direct

current (DC) using a device called a rectifier.

Reasons why we use AC in our homes but not DC

1. It is easier to generate AC than DC.

2. Its voltage can be changed more easil

Differences between direct current and alternating current

Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current

i) It flows in only one direction i) It flows in two one directions(forward

and backward)

ii) It does not induce emf in other ii) It induecs emf in other magnetic field
conductors within the magnetic field

iii) It produces magnetic field whose iii) It producves magnetic field whose
size and polarity does not change. size and polarity change continuosly.

SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

For an electric current to flow, there must be energy available to move the charges
and a complete circuit of conducting material for charge to flow through.

A simple electric circuit therefore has the following components:

1. An electrical power source e.g. cell or battery

2. A load, e.g., bulb, resistor, capacitor, inductor, or a combination of these.

3. A switch or key.

4. A conductor or wire.

5. Ammeter.

6. Voltmeter.

7. Rheostat.

Functions of the components of an electric circuit

1. The cell - It is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It
has two terminals called positive and negative terminals.
2. The switch - It is a control mechanism that allows the electrical circuit to be on
or off. When the switch or key is switched on, the circuit is closed, and the current
flows through the circuit. When the switch is off, the circuit is open, and no current
flows through it.

3. The load - The load converts the electrical energy carried by the current into a
form that is immediately useful,e.g. light bulb, stove, and fun.

4. The conductor or wire:This is the path through which electric energy (power)
generated circulates and is distributed around the needed components.

5. Resistor: This is any device that opposes the flow of electric current through a
circuit.

6. Rheostat or Variable resistor - This is a device used to vary or change the

resistance in an electric circuit.

7. Voltmeter:This is used to measure the voltage of a cell or battery or the

potential difference across a conductor or load in an electric circuit.

8. Ammeter - It is used for measuring current that flows in a circuit.

Open Circuit & Closed Circuit

Open Circuit - A circuit is said to be open when the switch or key is put off such
that the circuit becomes incomplete and therefore no current flows through it.

Closed Circuit - A circuit is said to be closed when when the switch or key is put
on such that the circuit becomes complete and therefore current flows through it.
 Conductors and Insulators

An electric conductor is a substance that allows electric current to pass through it.

Examples are metals(copper, aluminum, iron, steel, nickel), graphite/carbon, and

mineral acids (HCI, HNO3, H2SO3).

An electric insulator (non-conductor) is a substance that does not allow electric

current to pass through [Link] are rubber, plastics, mica, glass, cotton,
wool, silk, dry hair, oil, concrete, stone, alcohol, porcelain, wax, ceramic materials,
air, and nylon.

Characteristics of Insulators that make them unable to conduct electricity

i) There are no free electrons.

ii) Electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei.

iii) Have low charge density

iv) Have low electrical conductivity.

Semi-conductors

Semi-conductors are substances that partially allow an electric current to pass

through them. Examples are silicon and germanium.

The properties of semi-conductors exist between conductors and insulators. Semi-

conductors are usually used in the electronics industry to make components such as
transistors and solid-state diodes
 Symbols Used in Electric Circuit

Series and Parallel Arrangements of Bulbs, Resistors, and Cells

A. Cells connected in Series

B. Cells connected in Parallel

C. Resistors Connected in Series

D. Resistors Connected in Parallel

E. Bulbs Connected in Series

F. Bulbs Connected in Parallel

Advantages/usefulness of connecting cells in series

Cells in series give a greater resultant voltage hence greater power than individual
cells, therefore, can give bright light.

Disadvantage of cells in series

They do not last longer than those in parallel since there is more drain on them
because the same main current passes through them

Advantages of connecting cells in parallel

They share total current therefore there is less drain on the cells hence can last

longer than individual cells on their own

For resistors in series

- same current passes through them. i .e IT = I1 = I2 = I3

- each has different potential differences.

- potential difference is sum of the individual potential differences.

i.e VT = V1 + V2 + V3

- total resistance, RT = R1 + R2 + R3
- effective resistance is the sum of the individual resistance in the circuit.

For resistors in parallel

-They have same potential difference, VT = V1 = V2 = V3

- Each has a different current passing through.

- Total current is sum of the individual currents, i.e. IT = I1 + 12 +13

- Total Resistance is 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

i.e effective resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Advantages of resistors connected in parallel over series connection

If one load fails or is removed the remaining resistors are not affected.

Advantages of series over parallel

All the loads in the series are supplied with the same maximum power.

Factors affecting the resistance of a wire

The resistance of a conductor in the form of a wire is

- Directly proportional to the length of the wire

- Indirectly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the wire

- Directly proportional to the temperature

- Depends on the type of wire.

Thus the resistance of a wire depends on four factors namely:

-Length of wire

- The cross-sectional area of wire

-Temperature

-Type of wire
 Questions

1. In the diagram below/arrangement below,

a) Name the component U, W, X, Y and Z

b) What effect would reduction in the number cells have on

i) the current in the circuit

ii) the reading of V

iii) State two changes in the circuit that would increase the brightness of the lamp.

Solution

1. a) U - Battery/Cells

W - Rheostat/Variable resistor

X - Bulb/Load

Y - Voltmeter

Z - Ammeter

b α) Reducing number of cells will reduce the current in the circuit because total
voltage will reduce and since voltage is proportional to current (V ɑ I) the current
will also
 β) The reading on the voltmeter V will reduce since the cells are in [Link]
cells in series, total voltage is the sum of the individual [Link], reducing
the number of cells means total voltage has been reduced.

iii) - Increasing the number of cells means increasing the voltage and hence the
current)

- Decrease the resistance of the variable resistor (rheostat).

2. Mac Claude wished to find the resistance of an electric bulb and set up a
circuit as seen below.

The voltmeter reading was [Link] resistance of the bulb was 3Ω.

i) What would be the reading of the ammeter.

ii) He then added a 5 ohm resistor in [Link] is the reading of the ammeter in
series

iii) If the 5 ohm resistor was added in parallel to the lamp, what would be the
reading of the ammeter?

Solution

i) From ohms law, I = V/R where I = current, V= Voltage and R=resistance

I = 6/3
 I= 2A

ii) For resistors in series, RT = R1 + R2

RT = 3 + 5

RT = 8Ω

The reading of the current, I = V/R

I =6/8

I = 0.75A

iii) 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2

1/RT = 1/3 + 1/5

1/RT = 8/15

RT = 15/8

RT = 1.875Ω

3. Two cells each of an emf of 1.5v and internal resistance of 2Ω connected

a) i) In series ii) In parallel

Find the current in each case when the cells are connected to a 1 ohm resistor

b) If the 1 ohm resistor is substituted by an 11ohm resistor, calculate the new

current in both cases.

Solution

i)
For resistors in series, RT = R1 + R2 + R3

RT = 2 + 2 + 1

RT = 5Ω

The reading of the current, I = V/R

I = 3/5

I = 0.6A

If the 1 ohm resistor is substituted by an 11ohm resistor, RT = 2 + 2 + 11 = 15Ω

I=V/R = 3/15= 0.2A

ii)
For parallel connections,

1/ RT = 1/ R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

1/RT = 1/2 + 1/2

1/RT = = 1Ω

RT = 1+ 1 = 2Ω

The current reading , I = V/R

I = 1.5/2

I = 0.75A

If the 1 ohm resistor is substituted by an 11ohm resistor, 1/RT = 1/2 + 1/2 = 1

RT = 1 + 11 = 12Ω

I=V/R = 1.5/12= 0.125A

Topic 16:The Circulatory Systems in Humans

The circulatory system is the body system responsible for transporting blood,
nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones to and from the cells of the body.

It consists of:

- The heart (which pumps the blood)

- Blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries that carry the blood)

- Blood (which carries substances)

- Lymphatic system (which helps remove waste and supports immune function)

There are two main parts of the circulatory system namely:

1. Cardiovascular system –This comprises of the heart, blood, and blood vessels

2. Lymphatic system – This includes the lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessel

Importance of Circulatory System

1. The circulatory system transports oxygen and nutrients to all body cells.

2. It removes waste products like carbon dioxide from the body.

3. It helps regulate body temperature by distributing heat evenly.

4. It carries hormones from glands to different parts of the body.

5. It defends the body against diseases through white blood cells and antibodies.

6. It helps in blood clotting to prevent excessive bleeding when there is an injury.

Structure and Function of the Blood Circulatory System

Also known as the Cardiovascular System

Components:

Blood: Transport medium

Blood vessels: Route

Heart: Pump

Function: Distributes essential substances to cells and removes wastes via

muscular contractions of the heart

Double (Dual) Circulatory System in Humans

The human circulatory system has two main circuits connected at the heart
In one complete circulation, blood passes twice through the heart

Types of Blood Circulation

This occurs in two types namely; General (Systemic) Circulation and Pulmonary
Circulation as shown below

1. Pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to the lungs and back.
Its main purpose is to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen in the lungs. It is a low-
pressure circulation.

2. Systemic circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to the rest of the body
and back. Its purpose is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and carry
waste products back to the heart. It is a high-pressure and longer-distance
circulation.

Process of Systematic Circulation

1. De-oxygenated blood enters right atrium via vena cava

2. It then flows through the tricuspid valve into right ventricle

3. The right ventricle pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs

4. Oxygenated blood returns via pulmonary veins to left atrium

5. It flows through the left atrium into the left ventricle via the Bicuspid valve.

6. The left ventricle pumps the blood via aorta to all parts of the body.

Functions and position of the parts of the mammalian heart.

1. Right Atrium

- *Position*: Upper right chamber.

- *Function*: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the

superior/inferior vena cavae and pumps it into the right ventricle.

2. Right Ventricle

- *Position*: Lower right chamber.

- *Function*: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary

artery.

3. Left Atrium
 - *Position*: Upper left chamber.

- *Function*: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins
and sends it to the left ventricle.

4. Left Ventricle

- *Position*: Lower left chamber.

- *Function*: Pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body via the aorta. Has the
thickest myocardium to generate high pressure.

5. Tricuspid Valve

- *Position*: Between the right atrium and right ventricle.

- *Function*: Prevents backflow of blood into the right atrium during ventricular
contraction.

6. Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve

- *Position*: Between the left atrium and left ventricle.

- *Function*: Prevents backflow of blood into the left atrium during ventricular
contraction.

7. Pulmonary Valve

- *Position*: At the base of the pulmonary artery.

- *Function*: Prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle after it contracts.

8. Aortic Valve

- *Position*: At the base of the aorta.

- *Function*: Prevents backflow of blood into the left ventricle after it contracts.

9. Septum

- *Position*: Muscular wall dividing the left and right sides of the heart.

- *Function*: Ensures separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

10. Chordae Tendineae

- *Position*: Tendinous cords attaching to the tricuspid and mitral valves.

- *Function*: Anchor the valves to papillary muscles, preventing valve prolapse

during contraction.

11. Papillary Muscles

- *Position*: Muscular projections in the ventricles.

- *Function*: Contract to tighten the chordae tendineae, stabilizing the valves.

12. Pericardium

- *Position*: Double-layered sac surrounding the heart.

- *Function*: Protects the heart, reduces friction, and anchors it in the chest
cavity.

13. Aorta

- *Position*: Largest artery, arising from the left ventricle.

- *Function*: Distributes oxygenated blood to the systemic circulation.

14. Pulmonary Artery

- *Position*: Arises from the right ventricle.

- *Function*: Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

15. Pulmonary Veins

- *Position*: Connect the lungs to the left atrium.

- *Function*: Transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

16. Superior/Inferior Vena Cava

- *Position*: Large veins entering the right atrium.

- *Function*: Return deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart.

 The Heartbeat

The heartbeat is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart.

Phases of a Heartbeat

Systole: The phase when the heart muscles contract.

Diastole: The phase of relaxation between each contraction.

Normal Heart Rate

For a healthy adult at rest, the heart beats about 70–72 times per minute.

How to Measure Heartbeat

Pulse rate: You can count the heartbeat by checking the pulse.

Stethoscope: A device used to listen to the heartbeat and internal sounds of the
body.

It is also used to listen to the lungs, intestines, and blood flow in arteries and
veins.
 Stethoscope

Devices Used

Stethoscope: Acoustic device to hear internal body sounds.

Sphygmomanometer: When used with a stethoscope, it helps measure blood

pressure.
 Blood Vessles

Blood Vessels - These are tubes that transport blood to all parts of the
[Link] appearance varies depending on the job they do. There are three main
types of blood vessels namely; Arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries

These are blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood under high pressure from
the heart to all parts of the body except pulmonary artery which carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. It has elastic muscle layers to
absorb pressure produced by the heart and also squeeze blood to help move along
it.
 Veins

Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart under low pressure .( vessel
through which blood flows into the heart. They have thinner and less muscular
walls than [Link] thinner and less muscular walls than arteries. They tend to
be closer to the surface of the body than arteries. Blood in the veins is at a lower
pressure than in the arteries. Unlike arteries, veins have valves at intervals along
their lengths to prevent back flow of blood.
 Capillaries

Capillaries - They link small arteries (arterioles) to small veins (venules).

Responsible for the exchange 0f materials between blood and cells (tissues).They
are very narrow, single cell layer thin walled tubes. They divide from the arteries
and then rejoin to form veins. There are thousands and thousands of them, hence
are found in a [Link] the blood flows through them, water, oxygen and
dissolved food diffuse out through the thin walls to the surrounding [Link] the
same time waste materials that the cells need for good health and also remove their
waste products. Capillary also play an important role of regulating body
temperature
 Main Constituents of Blood and Their Functions

Blood is made up of two main components: Plasma and Cells (RBCs, WBCs, and
Platelets).

Plasma

Blood Proteins: About 7% of plasma. Includes:

Fibrinogen – for blood clotting.

Antibodies – for defense against disease.

Dissolved Foods: End products of digestion such as glucose, amino acids, and fats.

Mineral Salts: Ions like Na⁺, Cl⁻, Ca²⁺, HCO₃⁻.

Gases: Oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Hormones: For example, adrenaline and insulin.

Waste Products: Carbon dioxide and urea.

Cells

a. Red Blood Cells (RBC)

Carry oxygen using hemoglobin.

Transport some carbon dioxide.

b. White Blood Cells (WBC)

Phagocytes: Engulf and digest bacteria and dead cells.

Lymphocytes: Produce antibodies and antitoxins.

Defend the body against disease.

c. Platelets

Help in blood clotting by releasing enzymes that convert fibrinogen to fibrin,

forming a clot.

Functions of Blood

Blood performs four main functions

1. Transport

Carries oxygen from lungs to body tissues.

Carries carbon dioxide to lungs for removal.

Transports digested food from the gut to cells.

Transports waste products to the kidney for excretion.

Transports hormones, enzymes, and antibodies.

Distributes heat to regulate body temperature.

Protection / Defense

Platelets and fibrinogen help in clotting to prevent excessive bleeding.

WBCs protect the body by:

Engulfing pathogens (phagocytes).

Producing antibodies (lymphocytes).

 Producing antitoxins to neutralize toxins.

Regulation

Helps regulate body temperature

Controls water and chemical distribution.

Reproduction (in humans)

In males, supports erection for sexual intercourse.

Role of Blood in Defending the Body Against Diseases

Prevents pathogens/germs from entering the body and helps heal wounds.

WBCs:

Phagocytes ingest bacteria.

Lymphocytes produce antibodies.

Produce antitoxins to neutralize toxins.

The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a part of the circulatory and immune systems. It consists
of a network of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs that help in
fluid balance, fat absorption, and immune defense.

Main Components

1. Lymph: A clear, colorless fluid that originates from interstitial fluid. Contains
white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes), waste products, and sometimes bacteria or
viruses.

2. Lymphatic Vessels: Similar to veins, they carry lymph throughout the body.

Vessels have valves to prevent backflow and rely on muscle movement for flow.

3. Lymph Nodes: Small, bean-shaped structures located along lymphatic vessels.

Filter lymph and trap pathogens, which are then destroyed by white blood cells.
Common locations: neck, armpits, groin.

4. Lymphoid Organs: Tonsils: Protect against inhaled or ingested pathogens.

Thymus: Where T-cells mature (active in children).

Spleen: Filters blood, stores white blood cells, and removes old red blood cells.

Bone marrow: Produces white blood cells and other blood components.

Functions of the Lymphatic System

1. Drains excess tissue fluid and returns it to the bloodstream, preventing tissue
swelling (edema).

2. Absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system through
lacteals in the small intestine.

3. Protects the body against infections by transporting white blood cells and
removing pathogens.

4. Filters lymph and blood, removing waste, dead cells, and foreign invaders.

Disorders of the Lymphatic System

Lymphedema: Swelling due to blocked lymphatic drainage.

Lymphoma: Cancer of the lymphatic cells (e.g., Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s

lymphoma).

Infections: Swollen lymph nodes during bacterial or viral infections (e.g.,

tonsillitis).