Foundation

UNIT 8 FOUNDATION
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Foundations
8.2.1 Purpose of Foundation
8.2.2 Choice of Foundation
8.2.3 Types of Foundation
8.3 Shallow Foundation
8.3.1 Spread Footings
8.3.2 Strap Footings
8.3.3 Combined Footings
8.3.4 Grillage Footings
8.3.5 Raft Footings
8.4 Deep Foundations
8.4.1 Pile Foundations
8.4.2 Pier Foundation
8.4.3 Well Foundation
8.4.4 Caissions Foundation
8.5 Load Carrying Capacity of Pile Foundation
8.5.1 Dynamic Analysis
8.5.2 Static Analysis
8.5.3 Pile Load Tests
8.5.4 Penetration Tests
8.5.5 Group Action in Piles
8.5.6 Negative Skin Friction
8.6 Summary
8.7 Answers to SAQs

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier units of this block, you have learnt about soils, their origin, nature,
phase relationships, gradation, consistency and classification. You have also
learnt about soil water, stress relationships, compaction, shear strength, bearing
capacity and site investigations in detail. In this unit you will learn about various
types of foundations, choice of foundations for a particular situation, load
carrying capacity of piles, settlement of piles in clay, group action of piles, design
of pile group and negative skin friction on pile.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• define foundation,
• differentiate between shallow and deep foundation,
• explain various types of shallow and deep foundation,
• determine the load carrying capacity of piles, 155
Soil Mechanics and • understand the group action of piles,
Foundation Engineering
• explain the settlement of piles in clay,
• design the pile group, and
• determine the negative skin friction on pile.

8.2 FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure which provides a base for the
superstructure. The term foundation includes the portion of the structure below
the ground level as well as the artificial arrangement of concrete block, piles, raft,
grillage, etc. provided to transmit the loads on the structure including the dead
weight of the structure it self to the soil below.
8.2.1 Purpose of Foundation
Foundation is provided for the following main purposes :
(a) To distribute the weight of the structure over larger area so as to avoid
overloading of the soil beneath.
(b) To load the sub-stratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.
(c) To provide a level surface for building operations.
(d) To increase the stability of the structure by taking it deep into the
ground.
8.2.2 Choice of Foundation
The choice of type of foundations to be used in a given situation depends mainly
on the following factors :
(a) soil profile,
(b) bearing capacity of soil,
(c) type of structure,
(d) type of loads,
(e) permissible differential settlement,
(f) environmental and construction considerations, and
(g) economy
8.2.3 Types of Foundations
Foundations may be broadly classified into two categories : Shallow foundations
and deep foundations. The details of shallow and deep foundations are dealt in
subsequent sections.

SAQ 1

(a) What do you mean by foundation? Explain the purpose of providing

foundations.
(b) Describe the procedure of selecting different types of foundations
under different situations and soils.

156
 Foundation
8.3 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than
its width. Shallow foundation is placed immidiately beneath the lowest part of the
superstructure. The object of shallow foundation is to distribute the structural
loads over a considerable horizontal area near the surface. The shallow
foundations are of following types :
(a) Spread footings
(b) Strap footing
(c) Combined footings
(d) Grillage foundation
(e) Mat or raft foundation
8.3.1 Spread Footings
In case of spread footings, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is
made wider so as to distribute the load over wider area. The spread footings are
of following types :
(a) wall footing
(b) reinforced concrete footing
(c) column footings
Wall Footing
The wall footing consists of several courses of bricks, the breadth of lowest
course is usually twice the breadth of the wall above. The increased base
width of the wall is achieved by providing 1/4 brick length, i.e. 5 cm offset
on either side of the wall. The depth of each course is usually equal to depth
of one brick, i.e. 10 cm. A typical wall footing is shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 : Wall Footing

The size of offset is slightly more than that of the brick wall footing in case
of footings for stone walls. A bed of lean concrete of uniform thickness is
first spread over the entire length of the wall. The depth of lean concrete is
usually more than 15 cm and its projection on either side of the wall base
varies between 10 to 15 cm. The concrete bed provides a plain surface upon
which the wall footing can be started directly. 157
Soil Mechanics and Reinforced Concrete Footing
Foundation Engineering
The reinforced concrete footing is used in places where the walls are
subjected to relatively heavy loading and the bearing capacity of the soil on
which the wall footing is to rest is very low. The reinforced concrete
footing proves to be economical in the above situations as it reduce the
volume of concrete in the bed block.
The reinforced concrete footing for a wall is shown in Figure 8.2.

DISTRIBUTION
BARS

MAIN BARS

Figure 8.2 : Reinforced Concrete Footing for a Wall

A 7.0 to 8.0 cm thick bed of lean concrete is usually provided below the
reinforced concrete footing to perform the function of concrete bed block.
Column Footing
A column footing is an independent footing which is provided under a
column or other similar member for distributing the concentrated loads in
the form of uniformly distributed load on the soil below. The shape of
column footing may be square, rectangular or circular. Depending upon the
load to be carried, and the bearing capacity of the soil, column footing may
be of brick masonry, stone masonry, RCC, steel grillage, etc. RCC column
footing is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 : RCC Column Footing

8.3.2 Strap Footing

A strap footing consists of spread footings of two columns connected by a strap
beam. It may used where the distance between the columns is so great that the
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moment.
158
The strap beam does not transfer any load to the soil beneath. It is assumed that Foundation
strap is infinitely stiff and serves to transfer the column loads onto the soil
beneath with equal and uniform soil pressure under both, spread footings.
The strap footing is shown in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4 : RCC Strap Footing

8.3.3 Combined Footing

Combined footing is provided when two columns are close together and separate
footings would overlap as shown in Figure 8.5. Further, if one column is close to
a property line or sewer line, the load on an isolated base will be eccentric. It may
be economical to combine this footing with that of the adjacent internal column in
such a way that the centre of gravity of the loads from the two columns coincides
with the centre of gravity of the combined footing. A combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in shape, Rectangular shape is only possible where
loading condition is such that either the two columns are equally loaded or
interior column carries greater load.

Figure 8.5 : Combined Footing

8.3.4 Grillage Foundation

Grillage foundation is used in situations when heavy structural loads from
columns, piers or stanchions are required to be transferred to a soil of low bearing
capacity. This avoids deep excavation and provides necessary area at the base to
reduce the intensity of pressure. The grillage foundation consist of rolled steel
joists in one or two layers that are encased in concrete with the overall
dimensions being such that the soil pressure is within the allowable bearing
capacity. The grillage foundation is shown in Figure 8.6.
159
Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering

Figure 8.6 : Grillage Foundation

Depending upon the material used in construction grillage foundation can be
broadly divided in the following two categories :
(a) Steel grillage
(b) Timber grillage
Grillage foundation is now-a-days rarely used due to its high cost.
8.3.5 Mat or Raft Foundation
Raft foundations are used in situations when the loads transmitted by the columns
in a structure are so heavy or the allowable soil pressure so small that individual
footings would cover more than about one-half of the area. It is continuous
footing under all columns and walls and consists of thick reinforced concrete slab
covering the entire area of the bottom of the structure like a floor. The slab is
reinforced with bars running at right angles to each other both near bottom and
top face of the slab. Raft foundations are also used to reduce the settlement of the
structures located above highly compressible deposits. Raft foundation is shown
in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7 : Raft Foundation

160
 Foundation
SAQ 2

(a) Explain the different types of shallow foundations in brief.

(b) Explain the circumstances under which a strap footing can be used?

8.4 DEEP FOUNDATION

A foundation is said to be deep when depth (D) is much larger than width (B).
Deep foundations are used in situations when
(a) the strata of good bearing capacity is not available near the ground,
and
(b) the foundations of the structure has to be taken deep with the purpose
of attaining a bearing stratum which is suitable.
A deep foundation transmits all or portion of the load to some significant depth
below the base of the structure. The deep foundation is ordinarily intended to by
pass weak or undesirable materials and carry the loads to some stratrum below
the unsuitable soils.
The deep foundations are of following types
(a) Pile foundations
(b) Pier foundations
(c) Well foundations
(d) Caisson foundations
8.4.1 Pile Foundations
A pile performs the function of transferring load from the superstructure to
underlying stronger and less compressible strata through weak and compressible
strata or through water. Pile foundation is generally used when simple spread
foundation at a suitable depth is not possible either because the stratrum of
required bearing capacity is available at a greater depth or steep slopes are
encountered. In water-logged soil or compressible soil or soil of made up type
piles are used with advantage for providing safe foundation for any type of
structure.
Classification of Piles
Piles are classified on the following basis :
(a) Function
(b) Material
(c) Installation Method
(d) Soil Displacement 161
Soil Mechanics and Classification Based on Function
Foundation Engineering
Piles are classified in the following types based on their function :
(a) End bearing piles
(b) Friction piles
(c) Anchor piles
(d) Tension piles
(e) Compaction piles
(f) Sheet piles
(g) Batter piles
(h) Fender piles
End Bearing Piles
End bearing piles are those which are driven into the ground until a
hard stratrum is reached. These piles act as pillars, supporting the
super-structure and transmitting the load down to the level at which it
can be safely borne by the ground. End bearing pile is shown in
Figure 8.8.
Friction Piles
When the piles are driven through a soft soil and develop their
carrying capacity by friction on the sides of the piles, they are called
friction piles. Friction pile is shown in Figure 8.9.

Figure 8.8 : End Bearing Pile Figure 8.9 : Friction Pile

Anchor Piles
The piles used for providing anchorage against horizontal pull from
sheet piling walls or other pulling forces are known as anchor piles.
Anchor piles are shown in Figure 8.10.

Anchor piles

Figure 8.10 : Anchor Piles

162
Tension Piles Foundation

The pile used to resist upward forces and in tension is known as

tension pile. A pile may be under tension if it resists overturning of a
wall structurally connected to the pile cap or is used as an anchor for
guy wires or bulk heads. Figure 8.11 shows tension pile.

Tension piles
Figure 8.11: Tension Piles
Compaction Piles
The piles driven in granular soils with the aim of increasing the
bearing capacity of the soil are known as compaction piles.
Figure 8.12 shows compaction piles.

Figure 8.12 : Compaction Piles

Sheet Piles
Sheet piles are used to retain soil that is liable to escape laterally
when subjected to pressure or to enclose the area required for some
foundation and protect it from the action of running water. Sheet pile
is shown in Figure 8.13.
Fender pile
Batter pile

Sheet piles Dolphins

Figure 8.13 : Sheet Piles, Batter Pile, Fender Pile and Dolphins 163
Soil Mechanics and Batter Piles
Foundation Engineering
The piles driven at an inclination and have been found to resist the
large horizontal or inclined forces are known at batter piles. Batter
pile is shown in Figure 8.13.
Fender Piles
The piles used to protect concrete deck or other water front structures
from the obrasion or impact that may be caused from the ships or
barges are known as fender piles.
Classification Based on Material
Piles can be classified into the following types based on the material used in
their manufacture :
(a) Timber piles
(b) Steel piles
(c) Concrete piles
(d) Underreamed piles
(e) Composite piles
Timber Piles
Timber piles are used for supporting light structures to be located in
compressive soils constantly saturated with water. Transmission of
load through timber piles takes place by the frictional resistance of the
ground and the pile surface. The cross section of timber piles may be
circular or square. Timber piles are driven with the help of pile
driving machine in which a drop hammer delivers blows on the pile
head.

Figure 8.14 Timber Pile with MS Hoop and CI Shoe

Steel Piles
Steel piles have been used for supporting heavy loads. These piles are
used only in bearing. Steel piles require heavy hammers for driving
them. The steel piles are of following types :
164
 (a) H-piles Foundation

(b) Pipe – piles

(c) Screw piles
(d) Disc piles
Concrete Piles
Concrete piles may be of following types :
(a) Precast Concrete piles
(b) Cast-in-situ concrete piles
Precast Concrete Piles
Precast concrete pile may be defined as a reinforced concrete
pile which is moulded in circular, square, rectangular or
octagonal form. The diameter of the pile normally varies from
350 mm to 650 mm and their length varies from 4.5 m to 30 m.
The piles are cast and cured in a casting yard and then
transported to the site for driving. The piles are specially
suitable for situations where wooden piles are likely to be eaten
away by white ants.
Underreamed Pile
Underreamed pile is useful and economical in expansive soils like
black cotton soils where excessive shrinkage and swelling of clays
rule out the use of shallow spread footings. The normal size of these
piles is 150 mm to 250 mm diameter and 3 to 4 m long. The diameter
of underreamed section is 2 to 3 times the top diameter. The
underreamed pile is shown in Figure 8.15.
1750 for expansive
2 DU min.

soil
or

First
bulb

Boring level
for making
1.2 to 1.5 D

first bulb

Second / last
bulb
1

D Bucket
Du length

Figure 8.15 : Section of Underreamed Piles

165
Soil Mechanics and Composite Piles
Foundation Engineering
These are piles of two different materials driven one over the other so
as to enable them to act together to perform the function of a single
pile. The composite piles takes the advantage of good qualities of
both the materials. The composite pile is used with the object of
achieving economy in the cost of piling work.
CONCRETE PILE

WOODEN
PILE

Figure 8.16 : Composite Pile

Classification Based on Installation Method
Piles are of following types based on their installation method :
(a) Driven piles
(b) Driven and Cast-in-situ piles
(c) Jacked Piles
(d) Board and Cast-in-place piles
Driven Piles
Preformed piles usually of concrete, steel or timber which are driven
into the soil by the blows of a hammer.
Driven and Cast-in-place Piles
Piles formed by driving a tube fitted with a driving shoe into the soil
and filling the tube with concrete are known as Driven and
Cast-in-place piles. The tube may or may not be withdrawn.
Jacked Piles
Steel or concrete piles jacked into the soil are known as jacked piles.
Bored and Cast-in-place Piles
Piles formed by making a borehole into the soil and filling it with
concrete are known as Bored and Cast-in-place piles.
166
Classification Based on Soil Displacement Foundation

The piles are classified into following types on the basis of soil
displacement :
(a) Displacement piles
(b) Non-displacement piles
Displacement Piles
The piles whose installation causes displacement and disturbance of
soil are known as displacement piles. Driven piles, Driven and
Cast-in-place piles and jacked piles are example of this category.
Non-displacement Piles
The piles which do not cause any displacement and disturbance of
soil are known as Non-displacement piles. Bored Piles are example of
this category.
8.4.2 Pier Foundation
Pier foundations are used in situations when the loads to be transmitted are
heavier than loads that can be accomplished by piles. The pier foundations are
constructed by making large shafts. They are essentially bearing in nature and are
not slender. The strata of large sized piers can be inspected before concreting the
shaft. Figure 8.17 shows a pier foundation.

Figure 8.17 : Pier Foundation

8.4.3 Well Foundations

A well is a large hollow open ended structure which is generally built in parts and
sunk through ground or water to the prescribed depth which subsequently
becomes an integral part of the permanent foundation. Well foundations are used
to transmit large vertical and horizontal loads to deeper and stronger strata
because of the low bearing capacity of the overlying soils or for protection 167
Soil Mechanics and against scour. Wells are more commonly provided under bridge piers and
Foundation Engineering abutements. Figure 8.18 shows a well foundation.

PIER

WELL
CAP

TOP
PLUG
STEINING

FILLING

CURB

CUTTING
EDGE

BOTTOM
PLUG

Figure 8.18 : Well foundation

8.4.4 Caisson Foundations

A caisson may be defined as a water tight structure made up of wood, steel or
reinforced concrete constructed in connection with excavation for foundations of
bridges, piers abutments in rivers and lakes, dock, structures for shore protection,
break waters, lamp houses etc. The caisson remains in position and ultimately
becomes an integral part of the permanent structure. They are mostly used for
deep foundations under water where the foundations must extend upto or below
the river bed from stability considerations. Figure 8.19 shows a caisson
foundation.

(a) (c)
168
 Foundation

(b) (d)
Figure 8.19 : Caisson Foundation
Caissions can be broadly classified in the following three different types :
(a) Open caisson,
(b) Box caisson, and
(c) Preumatic caisson.

SAQ 3

(a) Explain the different types of deep foundations in brief.

(b) Discuss the importance of Caisson foundations.

8.5 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILE

FOUNDATIONS
The ultimate load carrying capacity of a pile is defined as the maximum load
which can be carried by a pile and at which the pile continues to sink without
further increase of load. It is represented by Qult.
The allowable load is the safe load which the pile can carry safely. It is
represented by Qa. It is determined on the basis of following :
(a) Ultimate bearing capacity divided by factor of safety,
(b) The permissible settlement, and
(c) Overall stability of the pile foundation.
The ultimate load carrying capacity of a single pile is generally estimated by the
following methods :
(a) Dynamic analysis
(b) Static analysis
(c) Pile load tests
(d) Penetration test
169
Soil Mechanics and 8.5.1 Dynamic Analysis
Foundation Engineering
The dynamic analysis is based on the assumption that the dynamic resistance to
driving is equal to the ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile under static
loading.
It is based on equating the kinetic energy of the driving hammer to the work done
by the pile in penetrating the soil plus the energy losses. A number of pile driving
formula have been proposed and two most commonly used formula are given
below :
(a) Engineering news record formula (ENR)
(b) Hilley’s formula
Engineering News Record Formula
The engineering news formula can be expressed in general form as :
WH
Qa = . . . (8.1)
F (S + C )

where, Qa = Allowable load,

W = Weight of hammer in kg,
H = height of fall in mm,
F = Factor of safety = 6,
S = Final set per blow, usually taken as the average penetration of
pile for the last 5 blows of a drop hammer, or 20 blows of a
steam hammer,
C = 25 mm for drop hammers, and
= 2.5 mm for single and double acting steam hammers.
The units of H, S and C should be same.
The engineering news formula reduces to following forms for drop
hammers, single acting steam hammers and double acting steam hammers :
WH
Drop hammers, Qa = . . . (8.2)
6 ( S + 25)

WH
Single acting steam hammers, Qa = . . . (8.3)
6 ( S + 2.5)

(W + ap ) H
Double acting steam hammers, Qa = . . . (8.4)
6 ( S + 2.5)

where, a = effective area of piston (mm2), and

p = mean effective steam pressure (kg/mm2).
Hiley’s Formulae
The Hiley’s formula applicable to friction piles can be expressed in the
following form
ηh ηb WH
Qult = . . . (8.5)
C
S+
2
170
 where, Qult = Allowable load, Foundation

W = Weight of hammer, in kg,

H = Height of fall of hammer in mm,
S = Final set or penetration per blow in mm, and
C = Total elastic compression.
= C1 + C2 + C3
where, C1 = Temporary elastic compression of dolly and packing,
C2 = Temporary elastic compression of pile,
C3 = Temporary elastic compression of soil,
ηh = Efficiency of hammer, variable from 65 percent for double
acting steam hammers to 100 percent for drop hammers, and
ηb = Efficiency of hammer blow.
W + e2 P
= when W > e P . . . (8.6)
W +P
2
W + e 2 P ⎧W − e P ⎫
= −⎨ ⎬ when W < e P . . . (8.7)
W +P ⎩W +P ⎭
where, P = Weight of pile, helmet, follower, and
e = coefficient of restitution.
Limitations of Dynamic Formulae
(a) The estimates load capacity of piles by different dynamic formula
vary through a wide range and the formula cannot be used with a
degree of certainty.
(b) The dynamic formula should be used only for piles in coarse grained
soils, i.e. sands and gravels.
(c) The dynamic formula should not be used for clays.
(d) The engineering news formula neglects the weight of pile and its
inertia effect.
(e) A number of constants are involved in Hiley’s formula which are
difficult to determine.
(f) Energy loss due to vibrations, heat and damage to dolly or packing
are not accounted for in Hiley’s formula.
(g) The Dynamic formula do not take into account the reduced bearing
capacity of pile when in a group.
8.5.2 Static Analysis
The static analysis considers the pile-soil interaction after installation and equates
the load on the pile to the shaft resistance and the base resistance. The static
analysis is based on the assumption that the ultimate bearing capacity (Qult) of a
pile is the sum of the total ultimate skin friction (Rf) and total ultimate point or
end bearing resistance (Rp), i.e.
Qult = Rf + Rp
= As rf + Ap rp . . . (8.8)
171
Soil Mechanics and where, As = Surface area of pile upon which the skin friction acts,
Foundation Engineering
Ap = Area of cross section of pile on which bearing resistance acts,
rf = Average skin friction, and
rp = Unit point resistance.
The allowable load (Qa) can be obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity
(Qult) by a factor of safety of 2.5 or 3.0, i.e.
Qult
Qa = . . . (8.9)
F
The expressions for cohesive and cohesionless soils are as follows :
Cohesive Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity for pile in cohesive soil is :
Qult = Rf + Rp
= As rf + Ap rp
Here rf = m c
and rp = cp Nc = 9 cp
Qult = m c As + 9 cp Ap
where, m = Adhesion coefficient,
c = Average undrained cohesion along the length of pile, and
cp = Average undrained cohesion of soil at pile tip.
The allowable load for the pile is given by dividing Qult by a factor of safety
the minimum value of which is 2.5 as per IS code.
Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity for pile in cohesive soil is :
Qult = Rf + RP
= As rf + Ap rp
where rf = K tan φ (γ z + q),
rp = 0.3 γ B Nγq for circular piles, and
γB
= N γq for rectangular square piles.
2
where, K = Coefficient of lateral earth pressure,
γ = Density of soil,
q = Surcharge on the ground
z = Depth of centre of gravity of the pile below ground surface,
B = Least lateral dimension of rectangular or square pile or
diameter of circular pile,
φ = Angle of internal friction, and
Nγq = Meyerhof’s non-dimensional factor.
172
8.5.3 Pile Load Tests Foundation

This test is also used to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of pile. The
learners are requested to go through the details of above test on any book of soil
mechanics and foundation engineering.
8.5.4 Penetration Tests
The results of dutch cone penetration test can be applied to determine the ultimate
bearing capacity of piles in cohesionless soils.
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile is given by
Qult = Rf + RP
= As rf + Ap rp . . . (8.12)
where rf = 2 fc,
rp = qc,
qc = unit resistance of Dutch cone penetrometer, and
fc = static skin friction on the shaft of the penetrometer.
8.5.5 Group Action in Piles
Piles are normally not used singly. They are generally used in a group. The
behaviour of piles in group is different than that of individual pile. Group action
refers to the dissimilarity in behaviour of a pile with respect to its load capacity
and settlement when used singly and in a group and to the mechanism of
interference between adjacent piles which causes this dissimilarity. Piles are
driven in groups at a spacing ranging from 1.5 to 4 times the diameter or side of a
pile.
Efficiency of Pile Group
The bearing capacity of a pile group may or may not be equal to the sum of
the bearing capacity of individual piles constituting a group. The theory and
tests have established that the total load of a group of friction piles (Qultg)
particularly in clay may be less than the product of load on the isolated pile
(Qultp) multiplied by the number of piles (n) in a group. The efficiency of a
pile group is defined as the ratio of the total load on a pile of a group at
failure to the failure load on the isolated pile multiplied by the number of
piles under similar conditions, i.e.
Qultg
ηg = . . . (8.13)
n Qultp

or Qultg = n Qultp . ηg
The efficiency of piles in end bearing piles is 100%. The efficiency of pile
group depends upon the following factors :
(a) Length, diameter, material and other characteristics of pile
(b) Spacing of pile
(c) Number of rows
(d) Total number of piles in a row
The efficiency of pile group can also be determined from following
formulae. 173
Soil Mechanics and Converse Labarre Formulae
Foundation Engineering
The efficiency of pile group
θ ⎡ ( n − 1) m + (m − 1) n ⎤
ηg = 1 − ⎢ ⎥ . . . (8.14)
90 ⎣ mn ⎦
where, m = Number of rows,
n = Number of piles in a row, and
d = Diameter of pile, and
d
s = spacing of pile and θ = tan −1 in degrees.
s
Seiler-Keeney Formulae
The efficiency of pile group
⎡ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ m + n − 2 ⎞⎤ 0.3
ηg = ⎢1 − 0.479 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥ + . . . (8.15)
⎜
⎣⎢ ⎝ s − 0.093 ⎠ ⎝ m + n − 1 ⎠ ⎦⎥ m + n

where, s = average spacing, centre to centre in metres.

Design of Pile Group
The ultimate load of a pile group can be determined from the following
equation :
Qultg = As rf + AP rp . . . (8.16)
Here As is the area of pile group along failure surface which is
approximately equal to the perimeter of the pile group (Pg) multiplied by
the length (L) of the pile, i.e.
As = Pg L
qu
Pg = Perimeter of pile group = 4 B, rf = shear strength of soil = τ = c =
2
for clayey soils.
Ap = cross –sectional area of pile group, at base = B × B = B2
rP = unit point or toe resistance = cp Nc = 9 cp
Putting the values
Qultg = As rf + AP rp
= 4 B L rf + B2 (9cp)
= 4 B L c + 9 B2 cp . . . (8.17)
This piles are connected at its top by a pile cap in a pile group which is
rigid and therefore failure of a pile group is likely to occur at a load which
may be small than the ultimate load carried by each pile multiplied by the
number of piles in a group.
If piles of a group are spaced in such a way that they act individually rather
than acting in a group, the total load capacity of n piles.
= n Qultp . . . (8.18)
where Qultp = Load of individual pile.
174
 The ultimate load (Qultg) of the pile group will be equal to lesser of Foundation
Eqs. (8.17) and (8.18) determined above.
Permissible load will be obtained by dividing the ultimate load by factor of
safety.
Settlement of Pile Group in Clay
The settlement of a group of friction piles inclay is determined on the
assumption that the clay contained between the top of the piles and their
lower third point is incompressible and that the load is applied to the soil at
the lower third point as shown in Figure 8.20.

2
3 L Transferred load
q = Q
B2

L L
3 3
B

300 300

Compressible fill
Load spread line

Rock

Figure 8.20 : Settlement Analysis of pile Group in Clay

The presence of pile below lower third point is ignored. The load is
assumed to be uniformly distributed at lower third point and is assumed to
spread at an angle of 30o with the vertical. The soil below lower third point
is divided in to a number of layers to calculate the initial stress (σ0) at
centre of the layer and additional stress due to piles (Δ σ).
The settlement of each layer is calculated from the following expression :
Cc H σ + Δσ
S= log10 0 . . . (8.19)
1 + e0 σ0

where, Cc = compression index,

H = thickness of the layer,
e0 = initial voids ratio,
σ0 = initial stress at the centre of the layer,
= γ z,
γ = unit weight of soil,
z = depth of the centre of the layer below ground level, and
Δσ = additional stress due to piles. 175
Soil Mechanics and 8.5.6 Negative Skin Friction
Foundation Engineering
The negative skin friction is the downward drag which is exerted on the pile by
the surrounding compressible soil. This condition arises when the compressible
soil in which or through which a pile has been installed is subjected to
consolidation. This downward drag tends to reduce the load capacity of pile.
Figure 8.21 shows the development of negative skin friction

Loose
fill H
L ff

Firm bearing

Figure 8.21 : Negative Skin Friction

Negative skin friction develops under the following circumstances :
(a) Pile is driven through recent cohesive fill which is still undergoing
consolidation under its own weight.
(b) Lowering of ground water table.
(c) A cohesive fill is placed on the surface of compressive layer only a
short time before driving the piles.
The magnitude of negative skin friction for individual piles may be determined as
follows :
(a) Qnf = p . c . H f for cohesive soils
1 2
(b) Qnf = Hf p γ K f for cohesionless soils
2
where, p = perimeter of the pile,
Hf = depth of fill or soil which is moving vertically,
C = cohesion of soil in zone of Hf,
K = earth pressure coefficient,
γ = unit weight of soil, and
f = coefficient of friction = tan φ
where φ = Angle of shearing resistance.
176
 Foundation
Example 8.1

A precast concrete pile is being driven with a 50 K N hammer having a free

fall of 1.0 m. If the penetration in the last blow is 6 mm, determine the
allowable load carrying capacity of the pile according to Engineering News
Formula.
Solution
The allowable load can be determined by
WH
Qa =
F (S + C )

Here, W = 50 kN, H = 1000 mm, S = 6 mm, C = 25 mm and F = 6.

Putting the values, we get
50 × 1000
Qa = = 268.82 kN
6 (25 + 6)

Example 8.2

A concrete pile weighing 35 kN is driven by a drop hammer weighing

50 kN and having an effective fall of 1.0 m. The average set per blow is
15 mm. The total temporary elastic compression is 20 mm. Assume the
coefficient of restitution as 0.30 and a factor of safety of 2.0, determine the
allowable load for pile using Hiley’s formula.
Solution
Here it is given that P = 35 kN, W = 50 kN, ηh H = 1.0 m = 1000 mm,
S = 15 mm, C = 20 mm, e = 0.30 and F = 2.0, e p = .30 × 35 = 10.5
Here, W>eP
Ultimate load carried by pile,
(nη H ) W nb
Qult =
C
S+
2

W + e2 P
nb =
W +P

50 + 0.32 × 35
= = 6.25
50 + 35

Putting the values, we get

1000 + 50 × 0.625
Qult = = 1250 kN
20
15 +
2
Allowable load,
Qult 1250
Qa = = = 625 kN
F 2 177
Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering Example 8.3

In a 25 pile group, the pile diameter is 500 mm and centre to centre spacing
of the square group is 1.6 m. All piles are 12 m long. Neglect bearing at the
tip of the pile and shear mobilization around each pile. Determine whether
the failure would occur with the pile acting individulally or as a group.
Assume c = 48 kN/m2.
Solution
Here, n = 25, d = 500 mm, L = 12 m, rP = 0.
Width of the pile group, B = 1600 × 4 + 500 = 6900 mm = 6.90 m.
(a) Ultimate bearing capacity in group
Qultg = P L rf + A . rP
= (4 B) × L × c
= 4 × 6.9 × 12 × 48 = 15897.6 kN
(b) Ultimate bearing capacity for the piles acting individually
Qultg = n Qultp = n × rf × As
= n × c × As
=n×c×πdL
= 25 × 48 × π × 0.50 × 12 = 22619.47 kN.
Which is more than the load carried by the group action. Hence the
foundation will fail by the piles acting in group and the load at failure
would be 22619.47 kN.

Example 8.4

A rectangular pile of section .60 m × 0.75 m and length 12 m penetrates a

deposit of clay with c = 42 kN/m2. Assuming m = 0.75, determine the
magnitude of negative skin friction.
Solution
Negative skin friction = p . (mc) . Hf
Here, p = 2 × 0.6 + 2 × 0.75 = 2.70 m
m c = 0.75 × 42
= 31.50
Hf = 12 m
Negative skin friction = 2.70 × 31.50 × 12 = 1020.60 kN.

SAQ 4

(a) A steel pile is being driven with a drop hammer weighing 25 kN and
having a free fall of 1.20 m. The penetration in the last blow is 5 mm.
Determine the allowable load carrying capacity of the pile according
to the Engineering News Formula.
178
 (b) Find the ultimate load and the allowable load for a RCC pile driven Foundation
by 35 kN single acting steam hammer into medium dense sand to a
final set of 5 mm per flow. It is given that
(i) Stroke of hammer = 1.360 m,
(ii) Weight of pile and dolly = 90 kN,
(iii) Coefficient of restitution = 0.45,
(iv) Hammer efficiency = 0.90,
(v) Total elastic compression of soil, pile and dolly = 20 mm,
and
(vi) Factor of safety = 2.5.
Use Hiley’s Formula.
(c) A group of 16 piles of 650 mm diameter is arranged in a square
pattern with centre to centre spacing of 1.0 m. The piles are 11 m long
and are embedded in clay with cohesion of 36 kN/m2. Determine the
ultimate bearing capacity of this pile group. Neglect bearing at the tip
of the pile. Assume adhesion factor 0.6.
(d) A circular pile of diameter 600 mm and 11 m long penetrates a
deposit of clay with c = 38 kN/m2. Assuming m = 0.65, determine the
load carried by the pile by the skin friction.

8.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have described the various types of shallow and deep foundations.
The static and dynamic analysis of piles have also been described in depth. The
pile load tests, penetration tests and group action in piles is also explained. Lastly
the procedure for determining negative skin friction in piles is explained.

8.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 4
(a) Allowable load can be determined by
WH
Qa =
F (S + C )

Here, W = 25 kN, H = 1.20, m = 1200 mm, F = 6, S = 5 mm,

C = 25 mm
Putting the values, we get
25 × 1200
Qa = = 166.67 kN
6 (5 + 25)
179
Soil Mechanics and (b) Here, e P = 0.45 × 90 = 40.5
Foundation Engineering
W = 35 < 40.5 (= e P)
Efficiency of hammer blow,
2
W + e2 P ⎛ W − e P ⎞
ηb = −⎜ ⎟
W +P ⎝W +P ⎠
2
35 + 0.45 × 90 ⎛ 35 − 0.45 × 90 ⎞
or ηb = −⎜ ⎟ = 0.424
35 + 90 ⎝ 35 + 90 ⎠
Ultimate load carrying capacity of Pile
ηh ηb W H 0.90 × 0.424 × 35 × 1360
Qult = = = 1210.56 kN
C 20
S+ 5+
2 2
Allowable load,
Qult
Qa = = 484.22 kN
2.5
(c) (i) Piles acting individually ultimate bearing capacity
Qultg = n Qultp = n × rf × As
=n×π×d×L×c
= 16 × π × 0.650 × 11 × 36
= 12938.34 kN
(ii) Piles acting in group
Ultimate bearing capacity, Qultg = As rf
As = PL = 4 BL = 4 (3 × 1.0 + 0.65) × 11 = 160.6 m2
rf = c = 36 kN/m2
Qult = 160.6 × 36 = 5781.6 kN
Ultimate bearing capacity = 5781.6 kN
(d) Load carried by the pile by the skin friction = p . (mc) . Hf
Here, p = π d = π × 0.600 = 0.6 π
Putting the values
Qnf = 0.6 π × 0.65 × 38 × 11 = 512 kN

180
 Foundation
FURTHER READING

181