BASIC NETWORK DEVICES

There are a number of components, which are used to build networks. An

understanding of these is essential in order to support networks. In this
chapter we will discuss some of the elements, which make up a network
[LAN].

 Network Adapter Cards

 Repeaters
 Hubs
 Switches
 Bridges
 Routers
 Modems

Before we discuss about these devices, you should understand about Network
segments.

What is a NETWORK SEGMENT?

A network segment

 is a length of cable
 devices can be attached to the cable
 has its own unique address
 has a limit on its length and the number of devices which can be
attached to it
Network Adapter Cards
A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection
to the network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and
support a wide variety of cable media and bus types [ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI,
PCMCIA].

New cards are software configurable, using a software program to configure

the resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP [plug and Play], which
automatically configure their resources when installed in the computer,
simplifying installation. With an operating system like Windows 98, auto-
detection of new hardware makes network connections simple and quick.

On power-up, the computer detects the new network card, assigns the correct
resources to it, and then installs the networking software required for
connection to the network. All the user need do is assign the network details
like computer name.

For Ethernet or 10BaseT cards, a twelve digit hexadecimal number identifies

each card. This number uniquely identifies the computer. These network card
numbers are used to identify the destination for the data. When talking to
another computer, the data you send to that computer is prefixed with the
number of the card you are sending the data to.
This allows intermediate devices in the network to decide in which direction
the data should go, in order to transport the data to its correct destination.

Do you know that the Network card address is also called as MAC
address or Physical address?

A typical adapter card looks like,

A PCMCIA adapter card, suitable for connecting to a portable laptop computer
to a network, looks like the ones shown below.

Do you know the Network card address of your computer? Try

this to get the address. From DOS prompt type ipconfig /all and
press enter. Can you see the Physical address of your card now?

REPEATERS
Repeaters EXTEND network segments. They amplify the incoming signal
received from one segment and send it on to all other attached segments.
This allows the distance limitations of network cabling to be extended. There
are limits on the number of repeaters, which can be used. The repeater counts
as a single node in the maximum node count associated with the Ethernet
standard [30 for thin coax].

Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault

conditions. Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the
associated segments from the network.

Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance

limitations. It does not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit
data faster.
It should be noted that in the above diagram, the network number assigned to
the main network segment and the network number assigned to the other
side of the repeater are the same. In addition, the traffic generated on one
segment is propagated onto the other segment. This causes a rise in the total
amount of traffic, so if the network segments are already heavily loaded, it's
not a good idea to use a repeater.

Summary of Repeater features

 increase traffic on segments

 have distance limitations
 limitations on the number that can be used
 propagate errors in the network
 cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
 cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
 no traffic isolation or filtering

HUB

A hub is a central point where multiple cables come together. A hub usually
allows 8, 16, or 64 node connections to communicate and are commonly used
to connect segments of a LAN. If any single connection disconnects or is
having problems the hub can partition (remove from the network) it and allow
all other nodes to continue to communicate. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all
packets.

There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or
combiners that group workstations into a single segment, whereas active
hubs include a repeater function and are thus capable of supporting many
more connections.

A 10BaseT hubs provide each client with exclusive access to the full
bandwidth, unlike bus networks where the bandwidth is shared. Each
workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10Mbps/100Mbps and is
for the exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry
about like in Ethernet.
BRIDGES
The function of a bridge is to connect separate Ethernets together. Bridges
map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment
and then allow only the necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. A bridge
can also filter out certain traffic and prevent it from passing through.

When a packet is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the

destination and source segments. If the segments are the same, the packet is
dropped("filtered"); if the segments are different, the packet is forwarded to
the proper segment. Additionally, bridges prevent all bad or misaligned
packets from spreading by not forwarding them.

Bridges are called "store-and-forward" devices because they look at the whole
Ethernet packet before making their filtering or forwarding decisions.

During initialization, the bridge learns about the network and the routes.
Packets are passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer.
Each time the bridge is presented with a frame, the source address is stored.
The bridge builds up a table, which identifies the segment to which the device
is located on. This internal table is then used to determine which segment
incoming frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table is important,
especially if the network has a large number of workstations/servers.

The advantages of bridges are

 Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments .

 Since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different
segments which use different MAC protocols
 By subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is
increased and the network becomes easier to maintain

The disadvantages of bridges are

 The buffering of frames introduces network delays

 Bridges may overload during periods of high traffic
 Bridges, which combine different MAC protocols, require the frames to
be modified before transmission onto the new segment. This causes
delays
 In complex networks, data may be sent over redundant paths, and the
shortest path is not always taken
 Bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the
network

Transparent bridges make all routing decisions. The bridge is said to be

transparent (invisible) to the workstations. The bridge will automatically
initialize itself and configure its own routing information after it has been
enabled.

Bridges are ideally used in environments where there a number of well

defined workgroups, each operating more or less independent of each other,
with occasional access to servers outside of their localized workgroup or
network segment. Bridges do not offer performance improvements when used
in diverse or scattered workgroups, where the majority of access occurs
outside of the local segment.

The diagram below shows two separate network segments connected via a
bridge. Note that each segment must have a unique network address number
in order for the bridge to be able to forward packets from one segment to the
other.

Ideally, if workstations on network segment A needed access to a server, the

best place to locate that server is on the same segment as the workstations,
as this minimizes traffic on the other segment, and avoids the delay incurred
by the bridge.

A bridge works by looking at the destination address and forwarding the frame
to the appropriate segment upon which the destination computer resides.
In the above diagram, a packet arrives whose destination is segment B. The
bridge forwards this incoming packet from segment A to the B segment.

Summary of Bridge features

 Can reduce traffic on other segments

 Broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
 Most allow remote access and configuration
 Loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
 Small delays introduced
 Fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in
the event of failure
 Not efficient with complex networks
 Redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the
major path being used was overloaded)

SWITCHES
An Ethernet switch is a bridge,
which can connect more than
two segments together. The
idea behind a switch is that it
removes all unneeded traffic
from each segment by only
forwarding the traffic needed
on that segment, which
provides better performance on the network.
They also filter packets a bit like a router does. In addition, Ethernet switches
work and function like bridges, but instead of reading the entire incoming
Ethernet frame before forwarding it to the destination segment, usually only
the destination address in the frame is read before retransmitting it to the
correct segment. In this way, switches forward frames faster than bridges,
offering less delay through the network, hence better performance.

When a packet arrives, the header is checked to determine which segment

the packet is destined for, and then its forwarded to that segment. If the
packet is destined for the same segment that it arrives on, the packet is
dropped and not retransmitted. This prevents the packet being "broadcasted"
onto unnecessary segments, reducing the traffic.

Nodes that inter-communicate frequently should be placed on the same

segment.

Different types of Switches

Cut-Through Switches

 Only the first few bytes of the packet are read to obtain the source and
destination addresses .The packets are then passed through to the
destination segment without checking the rest of the packet for errors
 Invalid packets can still be passed onto other segments
 There is little delay involved in packet throughput

Store-Forward Switches

 Examine the entire packet

 Each incoming packet is buffered, then examined
 Filters out any bad packets it detects
 Good packets are forwarded to the correct segment
 Detect more errors than the cut-through variety
 Impose a small delay in packet throughput

Back Pressure Switches

Switches often employ buffering of packets. This is done so when packets
arrive for a busy port, the packet is temporarily stored till the port becomes
free. When the buffer becomes fill, packets become lost.
Back pressure switches overcome this problem by sending the overflow
packets back to the workstation. This effectively slows the workstation
transmission rate, and hence slows the arrival of new packets at the port.

Ethernet Switching: Advantages

 Existing cabling structure and network adapters is preserved

 Switches can be used to segment overloaded networks
 Switches can be used to create server farms or implement backbones
 Technology is proven, Ethernet is a widely used standard
 Improved efficiency and faster performance due to low latency
switching times
 Each port does not contend with other ports, each having their own full
bandwidth (there is no contention like there is on Ethernet)

What is the difference between a HUB and a Switch ?

HUBs and Switches do basically the same work. They connect together
multiple computers and equipments. Meanwhile the way to do that is fairly
different.

If you want a single expression, we would say: A Switch is faster, a HUB is

cheaper. Buy a switch if high bandwidth is important because you have a
great number of users or heavy applications. Buy a HUB if you have less users
or light applications. Meanwhile, a switch is always a good investment.

The following graphic shows why a Switch is faster then a HUB.

ROUTERS

A Router is a device that forwards data

packets along networks. A router is
connected to at least two networks,
commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN
and its ISP’s network. Routers are
located at gateways, the places where
two or more networks connect.

Routers use headers and forwarding

tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate
with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts. Very
little filtering of data is done through routers.
Modems

Short for modulator-demodulator

A modem is a device that enables a computer to

transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable
lines. Computer information is stored digitally,
whereas information transmitted over telephone lines
is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem
converts between these two forms.