~~ i Dr. Falguni a —— Effective Teaching ii,Inthe fast changing scenario of the world the field of teaching and learning, that is education is also undergoing and witnessing changing circumstances putting immense pressure on both teacher and learmer. The present situation and future vision require that to become wholesome the education should inculcate character building and problem-solving attitudes and should reflect life in every phase of its activities. The book Effective Teaching Methods provides an interactive and applied thinking text on each and every issue of the domain of ‘education. Presenting basic concepts, latest techniques and innovations at the outset, the book elaborately discusses various aspects of teaching methods like class management lesson preparation technique, Description, Computer in Teaching. In addition, the book gives extensive coverage on reflective ‘teaching along with all related matters. It is sincerely hoped that this lucid presentation will suit to the needs of teachers, students, researchers, policy makers and general public. Contents: © The Purpose of the Schoo! © Class Management The Students First Day in Schoo! Effective Lesson Preparation Technique © Description © The blackboard © Making Progress © Computersin Teaching * Scientific Technology in Education © Productivity in Teaching through interaction «The First Day in School * Looking Ahead * Reaching the IndividualEffective Teaching MethodsEffective Teaching Methods Dr. Falguni S. Vansia Shreeya Publications Jaipur, IndiaFirst Published : 2015 ISBN : 978-83-83259-26-7 © Reserved Price : ¥ 995.00 Published By: Shreeya Publications, D-19, Inderpuri, Near S.M.S. Stadium, Inderpuri Colony, LalKothi, Tonk Road, Jaipur-302015 Tel. : 09829917162 Email : shreeyapub@[Link] Laser Typeset by: Shweta Art Printed at: JPC, Jaipur This Publication may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of publisher.Preface The primary purpose of this book is to provide teachers a clear and concise picture of how to structure comprehension instruction for students. For teachers responsible for reading instruction in these grade levels, this book shares ideas for implementing the intensive, focused instruction necessary to accelerate students’ reading progress. Because students who are not meeting grade level literacy standards often are also lagging in other subjects, this book offers suggestions to content area teachers for leveraging students’ literacy learning. The result can be life-changing when all teachers work together to improve a struggling reader’ ability to comprehend text. This book advocates explicitly teaching to struggling readers: summarizing, creating meaningful connections, self regulating, and inferring. These strategies have “high utility” and transferability across all texts without overwhelming struggling readers. We know even average adults have a limited capacity to hold information in their working memories. The Four Powerful Strategies described in this book provide an economical and compelling way to organize and represent the essentials of comprehension. Additionally, many of the key skills embedded in these Four Powerful Strategies are identified so that teachers can help students learn how to organize their knowledge about comprehension without feeling besieged by a long list of discrete, disconnected performance expectations.vi Preface This book concludes by examining what we know about the transter of learning. Instruction of struggling readers needs to be carefully designed so that students are able to independently transter their small group learning to other reading contexts. Jam thanktul to all the authors whose material I have consulted and referred to, in this book as they provided me an inspiration and opportunity to give elabration to my own use T owe my thanks to all those who rendered any sort of help in prepration ot this book. Hope, this book will be beneficial for students, teachers, researchers, psychologist, general readers and also for parents. AuthorContents oe Ke @®RpES VPN AT Pe PN Preface The Purpose of the School Class Management The Students First Day in School Effective Lesson Preparation Technique Description The Blackboard Making Progress Computers in Teaching Scientific Technology in Education Productivity in Teaching through Interaction . The First Day in School Looking Ahead Reaching the Individual I 27 81 11 121 144 161 179 184 1901 The Purpose of the School The intention of the teacher is to give the children information and guidance which will call forth their possibilities, and fit them for the work and leisure of life. He strives to train them to think logically and widely, and to develop in them the power to make tight decisions, so that they may play, with wisdom, the part for which their talents fit them. The teacher moulds the future citizens. He has it in his power to do much to make them citizens worthy of the name. The Personality of the Teacher No psychological definition is attempted here, but rather the answer to the question those in authority will ask themselves, namely “Does this candidate possess the qualities which make him a fit and proper person to be placed in charge of school children? ” The problem can be restated thus: Important as it is, the ability to impart information is not in itself sufficient. The child, endowed as he is with the power of discerning the real individual behind the appearance, will model himself on the person that is his teacher, not on what the latter pretends to be. The prime consideration, therefore, is character. Confidence in oneself is a first essential in the young teacher. Initial awkwardness and ignorance need not cannote lack of ability. Many instances are known to the writer of students in2 Effective Teaching Methods training. who. at first extremely diffident, gradually and with determination mastered the technique of their work, point by point and in the process mastered also their own fears. Confidence 1s born of resolution and knowledge: 4n orderly mind and a balanced outlook on life are the qualities which one is striving to induce in the children, and are those, therefore. that the voung teacher should pay particular and constant attention to in himself. No one can give to others what he does not himself possess. 4 duc sense of proportion, relative values, is bound up with the capacity to see relative values, is bound up with the capacity to see a situation from various sides, not merely from the subjective point of view ExampleThe voung, lately qualified, and newly appointed teacher possessing higher academic qualifications, may feel a secret sense of superiority towards some of his colleagues, who have given years to the service of the children. From his colleagues’ point of view, he is only a beginner, who has yet to prove his worth in the life of the school, and who will need their friendship, their guidance—and perhaps their patience. This ability to place oneself at another’s viewpoint is indispensable for successful work among children, and necessitates close observation and presistent practice. It will be discussed in some detail in Chapter V under “Questioning” and “Uses of Answers.” The capacity to think for himself and to make his own decisions is for the teacher a sine qua non. Without it he will neither win the confidence nor command the respect of his pupils, and his influence on them will not be for their good. The trouble which afflicts many so-called indecisive people is not inability to select and to judge wisely, but is failure to trust in and be responsible for their judgements. Indecision has its source, normally, in a lack of moral courage. It is a negative state, a decision to be weak, to wait upon the opinion of others. Where it is conjoined, as in a teacher’s duties, why responsibility, this vacillation begins in fear, and ends only too often in a nervous breakdown. The novice need not dread blundering. His seniors have come the road he is travelling and their experience of children’s capabilities is wider than his. They understand and will be willing to helpThe Purpose of the School 3 In school, as in life generally, decisions must sometimes be made which call for serious and unhasty deliberation of the problem in all its aspects. In other words, a reasoned judgement, not a summary decision, is expected. “To sleep on it” is, in such circumstances, sound psychology Again, emergencies arise which demand prompt action under stress, If the well-being of the young, people, which is the teacher’s care, is to be jealously promoted, quick decision has to become a habit. Children delight in obeying the balanced teacher who is capable and who can be trusted to act wisely in a crisis. An equable temper is a further necessity. Fussiness is detrimental, and habitual irritability fatal, to the influence a teacher's personality ought to radiate. An overt indication of being ruffled may on occasion be excused in a young teacher: we are all human; but such exhibitions should steadily diminish in frequency as his or her experience increases, and should eventually cease to occur. It is no excuse to say, “I have been terribly worried recently.” Must the pupils suffer merely because life is pressing hard upon their mentor? Bad temper may proceed from a variety of causes: three concern us here—fear of failure to satisfy the Head of the school and the inspectors, forgetfulness of the pupils’ limitations, and a dread of losing control. In the event of an impasse, a frank visit to the Head will help. He expects to be consulted by all his young teachers. Dread of losing grip will be discussed in Chapter II under “class-management,” but at this point it is well to bear in mind that vigorous children find a special delight in playing upon the irascibility of a teacher who shows he is easily irritated. A sense of humour is a priceless asset. Sarcasm or wit is not humour. Many people who do not possess a biting tongue, a nimble wit, or the raconteur’s gift, have yet a delightful appreciation of the humour of life. Humour connotes kindliness, a sense of proportion, a balanced, optimism, and a capacity for infinite patience. Sarcasm directed at a child is probably mere rudeness and refined bullying, but children feel at ease with a teacher whose humour springs from a sound humanitarianism. The value of a restrained, quizzical smile is worthy of the beginner's consideration.4 Fffective Teaching Methods It is also interesting and helpful to make a study of the differing manifestations of humour in children at various ages, and to observe how it differs from the humour of the educated adult Courtesy and good manners are the outward signs of a cultivated mind, and every teacher—indeed everyone who aspires to train children—should be able to lay claim to these attributes. Children absorb quickly the unobtrusive influence of a cultured atmosphere and environment, and they are as quick to notice their absence. That a teacher should be earnest, reliable, and progressive, scarcely needs to be said. There is no room in the teaching profession for any who are not. “An institution is only the lengthened shadow of one man.” Manner and Bearing Analert, frank, bright attitude is a necessity. Sound work requires an encouraging, purposeful atmosphere in the class-room, and it is the teacher who creates that atmosphere. Manner is the reflex of personality. It reveals the presence or absence of interest in the children and in what is being taught. It also tells whether the teacher's knowledge is perfunctory or though; children are splendid detectives. Animation and encouragement must, however, be clearly differentiated from the softness which stamps the teacher who considers his pupils’ feelings of the moment rather than their requirements. The successful teacher's attitude is at once restrained and impelling, so that those under his charge appreciate that a standard of steady, honest endeavour is being set, which they can and must attain. (See, too, under “Class-management.”) Speech The voice is the chief of a teacher's tools. Its importance cannot be too strongly stressed. Powers of expression, which have carried him with fair success through most of the ordinary circumstances of life, may prove inadequate when he engages in the training of children. He must be able to address a class as a whole. He must, too, be able to speak to an individual or to a small group, so as to be effective without disturbing others at different work: this latter ability is particularly desirable under rural-school conditions,The Purpose of the School 5 is particularly desirable under rural-school conditions. Oral reading of a high standard, of both prose and verse, is also demanded, since the teacher's duty is to illuminate the sense by adequate expression, to give a pattern worthy of imitation, and to demonstrate the beauty which lies in literature. In the primary school, the teacher normally takes the same pupils in all lessons every day. According as his tones are loud and strident, or mellow and firm, will the children’s lives in school be passed under constant strain or in an atmosphere of unagitated activity. All utterances—statement, questions, or command—should be made calmly, clearly, and with decision. The failure of the pupils to respond to injunctions or enquiries may be due to the use of language beyond their grasp (see Chapter V, “Description”), but it may equally be the result of the young teacher's carelessness: of vowels mispronounced or syllables slurred; of the failure of the voice to reach every member of the class; or of the lack of incisiveness in tone that alone can produce the immediate effect desired. It is profitable to consider these hindrances in turn. (1) Mispronunciation and slurring have a bad effect upon the children. Where these faults exist, they have probably become engrained habits and can only be eradicated by constant practice and persistent care. The following suggestions may help: Use a good pronouncing dictionary. Copy those recognised as good speakers. Read aloud daily, in private, for five or ten minutes at a time This increases confidence in one’s own voice. Slurring and indistinctness of enunciation may be caused by too great rapidity of speech, or by the failure to sound consonants clearly, owing to insufficient mobility of the vocal organs. The final syllables of words will therefore require particular attention. The daily reading practice ought to be staccato until indistinctness has been replaced by a new habit of crisp utterance Nonsense rhymes and the like provide useful practice as a vowel and consonant corrective; properly used, they induce crisp accuracy with fluency. Practice in verse-speaking is a valuable aid to clear enunciation. (2) A slight raising of the vocal pitch, together with the proper functioning of the lips, will usually sutfice to project the6 Effective Teaching Methods voice so as to reach the whole class. Many people fail to utilise the lips as a conscious aid to clear speech. A beginner should practise throwing the voice in a large room—an empty class-room is best—and noting what is necessary to gain the best effects. Hectoring or bawling are not called for. A large proportion of young teachers tend to use the voice with unnecessary strain. Where an alteration of tone is desired for contrast, say in descriptive work, or for control, a change to a minor key is most effective; this frequently reaches farther, and is more impressive than the major pitch. Moreover, in exercising control it use may often save the speaker from appearing to have lost his temper. The minor key is also less apt to affect the sensitive child adversely (3) Indecision of voice may have a psychological basis (see later). Some people, however, have a natural soft-toned fluency which carries with it a danger all its own. It may produce an effect of indecisiveness from its unchanging smoothness the children’s consciousness, without power to strike and arrest; and by its monotonous rise and fall, lulling the pupils into comparative inattention. The cure is simple, if not altogether easy of application. Be brief. Make every word carry its own weight. Stress the important words. Consciously stop and close the lips after a statement. Only reopen them when compelled to. Practise persistently till placidity of tone has been replaced by a fluency that is purposeful and incisive. When all has been done to make the voice the finely tempered instrument it ought to be, it must still be kept in mind that speech is the tool of the personality and can only give of its best when ruled by a wise and well-informed kindliness. In Ruskin’s words, “He who hath the truth at his heart, need never fear the want of persuasion on his tongue.”2 Class Management The circumstances of class management alter with different ages, and in varying environments, but the essentials are never the same. Control is the testing point of personality. One may be master of all the best methods of teaching, but in the absence of good discipline this mastery is all but futile. Sound government is the oil without which the wheels of progress can but stifily revolve. To some people, the question of class management presents no difficulty. For them, the difficulty is to appreciate how it can be so serious a matter for others. But the natural leaders are the first to agree that power to control can be greatly strengthened by a knowledge of its technique, the basis of which is simply common sense. A clear understanding of the teacher's position may serve to dispel any self-consciousness the beginner may fell on going forward to his first lessons. The teacher is an adult, placed in charge of immature children. They feel that, in comparison with themselves, his knowledge and experience are vast and wide. Further, he represents authority; he is in loco parentis with the scales weighted in the his favour. Class management, from the present point of view, is a problem of the psychology of the crowd. A class, like a mob, requires a leader, and that leader must be the teacher, if those entrusted to him are to be guided as a harmonious and well-8 Effective Teaching Methods organised group into the activities necessary for the present and future well-being of each of its members. The earnest teacher merely requires resolution in order to go forward with confidence as the dominant personality in the classroom The mental attitude he intends his scholars to adopt towards. him must be the young teacher's first consideration. On this point there can be no dubiety. Respect comes first. Many ardent beginners strive to be too friendly. They set out to win the affection of the young people, and leaving respect to take care of itself, they “come down’ to the children and practically ask for liking. A cheap popularity is dear at any price. Children know they are expected to obey; they know they come to school to learn. Their first reaction to their new teacher is one of suspended judgement. They feel no initial affection for him, for he has not vet proved himself. Probably, being children, they intend to try him out, in much the same spirit as the small boy cuts open his drum to see where the noise comes from. With the affection- first teacher the period of probation is soon over. He himself deliberately reveals his own unsoundness and the pupils quickly recognise him as weak, for he allows conduct which they know should not be permitted. He has failed to be a leader. Such a teacher is soon dubbed opprobriously, and his life in school becomes a purgatory to himself and a danger to his pupils’ welfare. A single child when alone with him may answer disrespectfully, because he feels the support of his comrades despite their absence; the class a whole will probably come to behave in a way which is an obstacle to their own progress, and a nuisance to neighbouring teachers and pupils. The “soft” teacher is a bad trainer of character; he gives the children a poor preparation for life. Fondling of children in school is another serious error. Not only does it tend to favouritism, but most children of both sexes dislike and resent it. In particular, any boy who likes it had better be treated otherwise; it is not coddling he requires. The teacher, pondering the question, How may I do my best for my pupils? Takes long views. He is ever conscious, not of their moods of the moment, but of their needs, and acts accordingly. Only thus does he win a goodwill which endures. Children, compact of activity and the desire to know, have a strong instinctClass Management 9 for here-worship, but it is given only to the worthy; it is not offered to the sentimentalist. Nor can it be had for the asking; it must be earned, for here-worship is founded upon respect. It is wise, therefore, to begin by being too firm rather than too tolerant. The young teacher can then ease off gradually, and his pupils will value him the more. Should he attempt to reverse the procedure, he will have before him, in attempting to gain a firm, calm control, a task that may be too much for his resources. In the attempt he may find himself regarded as a bully, and his own confidence in fragments around him Equally, the teacher must respect his pupils. It follows that a good and ever-widening understanding of children in all their possibilities and limitations is necessary, if control is to be humane, yet sound. The learner would do well to study children at first hand, both at work and at play. Memories of his own childhood will prove a valuable aid to his understanding of the young people’s reactions. His next step, the reading of books on the psychology of the child, should be taken only when he feels he has exhausted the usefulness of his first-hand study, but such reading should send him back to resume that study with new insight and increased earnestness. The student who comes to his first teaching practice with the knowledge thus gained can approach the question of class- management with a wise confidence. Child-study is a lifelong exploration. The beginner who expects to learn, within a year or two, all he need know about children, would be wise to consider whether he may not have mistaken his profession. The teacher must know his work. Always will he prepare carefully, and with thoroughness, and, by showing himself interested in the lessons and in his pupils, prove himself worthy of attention. Children cannot be obedient to commands in definitely, unless they are having adequate instruction or acti ity. The mere power to have them willing to obey, although a prime essential, does not of itself take teacher and scholars forward on their journey. The engine must run. There is no more fruittul source of weak control than the ill- prepared or poorly-taught lesson. The teacher who hopes to induce a discipline which is valid gives of his best—always.0 Fffective Teaching Methods The novice may ask, “Will my control be weakened if 1 happen to blunder?” Obviously, that will depend upon the type of error, and on its handing. When a difficulty arises, any attempt by a teacher to bluff, in order to hide his own ignorance, would probably be perceived by the young people, and he would be regarded with suspicion, Control would definitely weaken, for respect would have gone. If the difficulty is an answer to a child’s enquiry, the wise course is frankness, with an offer to find out. Respect will at once be heightened. Children realise that no one can know everything in the world. On the other hand, if the teacher ought to have know the answer, he is creating his own troubles, by failing to keep abreast of his work. Technique of Control The beginner who comes with an informed mind and an alert attitude will find that common sense will solve most of his problems of class management. It will be advantageous, however, to set out, as deductions from the foregoing, certain rules of procedure. (1) Conserve the Voice May young teachers tend to strain the vocal organs. Speech, crisp, distinct, and well-modulated, should be adapted to the acoustics f the room. Tones which re-echo from the wall opposite are overloud. A noisy voice creates and encourages noise in the room. Speak a little above the conversational pitch when addressing a group, bout only with sufficient loudness to reach the farthest-off child, clearly and with effect. Pointed speech pays. Children are soon bored by a flow of unnecessary words, and inattention inevitably results. Further, each statement must have an explicit meaning for the young people. Two examples will illustrate this: (a) A class is preparing work and there is some noise. The teacher decides that silence is necessary. Children, keep quiet! only indicates to them the need for minimisation of talk. Voices are lowered—temporarily. A more pointed statement is therefore required. Children, stop taking! said properly, will be effective. Some, however, may tend to go on talking in a whisper—for, to a child,Class Management uN whispering seems different from talking—and noise soon mounts anew Children, close the lips! is explicit. Quietude reigns. (b) The method of utterance is important. Children, close the lips! delivered without pause, is of less arresting power than Children!—close—the lips! The learner may try out this distinction with an order which will probably be given by him on his first day of teaching practice. Children, sit up! will cause the well-disciplined class to respond, mildly interested. Children!—sit—up! (with emphasis on the last word) will bring the pupils to immediate alertness, and the ensuing lesson should go with a swing. (2) Expect Attention Give each statement once only and see that the desired result is obtained immediately. When the response is not satisfactory, the cause may be one or more of the following. (a) The voice may have lacked decision. (b) The words may have been too hurriedly pronounced to reach the consciousness of the pupils. (©) The tones may have been tool low to reach everyone, or noise from outside may have interfered. (d) If the class is already occupied, the teacher may have failed to attract their attention, by omitting the prefatory word, “Children!” © The pupils may be too tired to respond with alertness. An over-heated or ill-ventilated room makes for lethargy, and many children get insufficient sleep, especially during the summer months. ( An unresponsive child may have been dreaming, with thought of disobedience. (g) If an apparent attempt is being made to try out a new teacher, he will, calmly and clearly, warn the class of the necessity of obeying orders. Then he will repeat the order. Should any slackness now occur, his reaction will be prompt and to the point. Where a clear-out decision is called for, immediate action is imperative. The danger for the young teacher is in12 Effective Teaching Methods delay. Pupils quickly not indecision, and can make a shrewd guess at its implications. (3) Check each Misdemeanour Immediately A beginner is apt to say to himself, “It is only a small thing. 111 wait, and check when a big thing happens.” The evil of that error is incalculable. The big thing was exactly that little occurrence. By his misapprehension, that voung teacher is in a worse position than when he began, for now his charges know—and know clearly—that he does not know his business. Special Note—Never, however, must a child be scolded or punished for inability. He might as well be blamed for the ebb of the tide. A high standard of endeavour should be set and maintained, but it must be compatible with the pupil’s powers, Condemnation ought to be meted out for neglect or other misconduct only (4) Teach with an Alert Eye The effective use of the eye is one of the teacher's most important assets. Indeed, by its means, he expresses much of the strength of his personality. The eye was given us, not only for knowledge, but for power. Each pupils ought to feel he is under the direct observation of the teacher: otherwise the former will not receive the full benefit of the instruction; the electric contact between children and preceptor will not be established; and the teacher will not know if each is attending and assimilating. Therefore, in addressing a class, one ought to stand so far back as to see everyone, including those in the front row, without turning the head. A teacher's vigilant eve has, as its corollary, an alert class. The eye, used with wisdom, may save the young teacher from one of the grave dangers of inexperience; e.g. it can be very annoying, when one is teaching with enthusiasm, to find a child paying no attention. Momentarily upset, the novice may shout at the child, and thus show he can easily be made irritable. In this way the pupils tend to lose their reliance upon him, for he has shaken the foundations of his own control. The best method of correction has three stages: (a) Keep the eye upon the culprit—while going on with the lesson—until he becomes conscious of the gaze, sits up, andClass Management B attends. (b) Is a fixed gaze will not alone suffice, a pause in speaking is usually effective. (c) Failing with a and b one may address the pupil by name, calmly yet sharply. Only when these means are of no avail should the child be shifted to another seat. Should inattention still continue it will be necessary to note carefully whether the pupil is unable to concentrate owing to ill- health or some other serious reason, or is being deliberately disobedient. (5) Be Methodical Work to a system. Have as few rules as possible, but each one wise, and essential for the prevailing conditions. Unnecessary regulations are not only irksome; their existence tends to obscure the value of those which are vital Equally vital is it that the teacher, in insisting on complete obedience to each rule, should himself set the example. Not otherwise can his system serve its purpose as a medium for balanced behaviour and reliable effort. (6) Be Steady Stern today and slack tomorrow is bad for both pupil and teacher. For the former, such behaviour is the negation of proper training, and for the latter, it carries the dangers of unsatisfactory performance and of increasing irritability. The pupils do not know where they stand, under such vacillating conditions. They are being encouraged to be spasmodic and temperamental, and are ever in a state of venturesome unrest. The “undulating teacher” is even less of a real friend to the children than he who drives always with too slack a rein. (7) Allow Reasonable Freedom A beginner sometimes tends to be too strict at the wrong time. Healthy children have a natural urge to be active, and must not be kept on the strain too long. A periodic break in the tension is imperative. The class ought, for example, to be granted a two— or even three—minute break between lessons, when remaining in the same room; and the children should then be permitted to talk freely. The time thus lost will be more than regained through better attention during the next lesson. Nor is there any need to be afraid of orderly disorder; at such a time it has a value of its4 Effective Teaching Methods own. The teacher will take care, however, that the breathing space is given by him, and not merely usurped by the class; otherwise he will ultimately be faced with disorderly order at other times, a problem of a totally different kind, against which all his care has been directed (8) Be Just The observant reader has noted already that each of the forgoing. rules is an adjunct of equity. The young teacher will do well to keep the present rule as an ideal constantly before him. Even should he incline to be a little severe, he will not err greatly if he is scrupulously fair to each of those under his guidance. Children have a keen sense of justice. “He may be a beast, but he’s a just beast,” was a high commendation. In later years, the Just Beast is remembered with pride, and to have been trained under his faithful administration is to have received a badge of merit. A firm, impartial leader is always revered by his pupils. Inevitably, the beginner will be faced with the danger of favouritism. Some of his young people may seem more likeable than others. His likes and dislikes the teacher must completely conceal. Again, he may tend to make more of his clever pupils than of others. Such conduct is gross injustice; it is, indeed, crasser stupidity than the dullness which is, by inference, condemned. The safeguard here is to praise honest effort—wisely, not profusely—in all cases. The intellectual child learns with ease; he is not always a hard worker. No tale-bearing must be allowed. Should such an attempt take place in open class, the teacher will arrest the narrative as soon as he is sure of its implication. No second attempt is likely to occur. If the attempt be made secretly, it must be checked with even greater firmness; and as the days and weeks go by, the teacher will be studying the informer, in order to discover the best means of developing and improving the latter’s self-reliance and self-respect. The young teacher may dread he will misjudge. Of course he will. The person who never made a mistake exonerate him, if, when he does discover he has condemned unjustly, he admits his error to the victim—in the hearing of the class. He will not “lose face”; the whole incident will enhance his reputation and increase his efficiency.Class Management 15 After an occurrence such as this, the accused, a boy, 13 years of age, voluntarily replied, “It’s all right, sir! You're let me off at other times.” Children can forgive mistakes. They do no pardon injustice The biggest danger of error is in over-hasty action, which may easily degenerate into bullying. The teacher isin a privileged, yet peculiarly difficult position, for he is both prosecutor and judge. Ordinary justice demands that he listen with patience and close attention to what a child has to say in his own defence Thus, the teacher gives himself time to curb his own impetuousness, and to decide calmly upon what is necessary under the circumstances. Above all, the pupils see for themselves that he desires to be fair. (9) Trust the Children This is the natural complement to Rule 8. It does not mean, however, that the teacher will delegate his powers to those juvenile minds, immature, and without realisation of what life will exact from them. The teacher himself must ever be the dominant personality, leading his charges into a wise self-control He will strive through sound teaching and wise management, to win their willing co-operation, for they will soon realise, by his insistence on pulling them up to his level, instead of his coming down to theirs, that his interest in their progress and well-being is genuine. They will come to appreciate his recognition of their efforts; they will feel a strengthened confidence in their own capabilities and in him. Any teacher who could not see the good points in his pupils would be unfit for his work. His attitude would depend upon the system, “Thou shalt not,” and would lead to threats and undue punishments. His influence upon the children would be in every way vicious. The beginner’s trust in his children, like their confidence in him, must unfold itself slowly and with caution, if it is to attain to real value, and will show itself in varied ways as opportunity offers. It should only be expressed by actions; it is too sacred for speech. Typical opportunities are here given: (a) Reasonable freedom and praise, properly expressed, for honest effort are first steps.If Fffective Teaching Methods (b) Ttused to be the wretched custom, when a teacher left the room, for a child to be set to watch and report upon the behaviour of the others. If the “spy” reported anyone, the class regarded this as sneaking. Should he fail to report, the teacher looked upon him as untruthful. Truly an invidious position for any child, 4 later fashion was to say, “I expect you to sit quiet while 1 am out.” This obviously means, “I do not expect . . .” otherwise it need not be mentioned. The children were not deluded. They telt their teacher was a kind of gaoler, and therefore, according to their code, thev were entitled to create a noise. The correct way is to see that the children have enough to keep them busy, then to go from the room without comment. This has proved entirely satisfactory in instances beyond number. A more difficult problem arises in the case of misconduct. Where the teacher has clear evidence of a child’s guilt, despite the latter's possible protestations of innocence, he must take the necessary stern steps. To do otherwise would seriously damage his control by showing him to be gullible, and would place a premium upon mendacity. c The constant endeavour of the teacher will be, however, to obtain an admission of guilt in cases where there is no dubiety. When he does—the process of evoking frankness may entail months of unwearying patience—he will then say to the culprit, “What are you going to do about it?” on the first occasion, a startled look will be the only response, for the child will have had thrown back upon him the onus of improved behaviour. Until now, he will most probably have regarded that responsibility as the teacher's. The next question will be, “How are you going to put matter right?” the teacher will now be guided by the answer he receives, which may be, “By doing my work for tomorrow,” or “| don’t know,” or even “I should be punished.” Common sense will dictate the best course, but failing that last answer, the teacher will ask, “And what ought I to do?” Then he will certainly mete out what he considers due—children must be trained to accept the consequences of their volitions—but he will make the punishment as light as is consistent with the child’s need to feel satisfied that he has confessed his crime and taken to feel satisfied that he has confessed this crime and taken his dueClass Management 17 like a man. The teacher's words, e.g. “That was very honourable of you, So-and-so,” will close the incident, but its effects will be of far-reaching consequence The pupils are thus given a new orientation of ideas which may bring about a revolution in their thoughts; and the teacher will be training his young charges for adult citizenship by giving practice in the social responsibility of the individual Once the teacher has consolidated his position and has won a willing respect, he will have induced such as spirit in his children that the need for punishment will but seldom occur, and when it does, it will scarcely ever be given unless the child agrees he deserves correction. “But,” says the young teacher, “shall I not be cheated?” Perhaps so, but his ideal of justice will gradually permeate the class. The pupils themselves will come to feel that any deceitful offender is lowering the whole class, and will themselves deal faithfully with him. Children’s codes of honour differ in many ways from that of the adult, but the teacher must satisfy their inherent craving to be treated as “big”; he must be prepared to recognise that even is an individual may occasionally fail him, his pupils as a whole are worthy of the same high respect from him which he expects from them. Control is never what it should be until it is effortless.The Students First Day in School eS Your mental attitude on approaching the school is of considerable importance. The pupils may know of your coming, and seeing vou enter the school, will form their first impressions. A person who walks confidently with a balanced attitude, and asks the wav to the headmaster’s room, as if he had come on business, will have taken the first steps to show himself a dependable teacher. Above all, do not attempt to make friends with the children in the playground. They may have had, recently, a student- teacher who has been “soft,” and your attempt might thrust you into the same category. If a previous beginner has left a bad legacy, destroy it, and leave a better. It is normally a safe rule, when one desires to make friends with children, to make approaches with caution. Children are shy beings. It is safer to let the approaches be made by them. Why should they be immediately friendly? How would you yourself treat a stranger who was effusive? The headmaster will observe you keenly. In all probability, he will require to send to your Training College a written report upon your punctuality and attention to duty, your characteristics, your class-control, and your prospective value as a teacher. First impressions live long. You must be thoroughly alert. He may simply state where he intends to place you, or he may give a choice. Be prepared for that offer, and have yourThe Students First Day in School 19 reasons for your preference. In addition, he may give a few suggestions on the organisation of a school and upon what is expected of you. These hints are valuable. Do not let their worth be dimmed by any preconceived notions culled from books. For the time being he is your principal, with every right to demand your obedience. You can take everything to the bar of reason later Should an opportunity occur, you might well offer to assist in playground duty, piano-playing, etc., in addition to your work in the class-room. This will prove an instructive aid; it will make you feel yourself really a member of the staff—although a very junior one; and it will show you are keen to make yourself a proficient teacher. When taken to the staff-room, remember that any undue delay in reporting yourself ready will be noted—to your detriment. What was said about crossing the playground applies with greatly increased force to your entrance into the class-room, where you are to act in the subsidiary position of assistant to the class-teacher. Every pair of eyes will be upon you. However shy or nervous you feel, you must try to appear natural and businesslike. Observation will probably be your first day’s work. In that case, ask if you may sit at a desk at the back of the room. It will save you from being tempted to take the teacher's chair, which is not your prerogative, and, in the absence of a second chair, you will have no need to stand. The back is the best position. It saves you from the eyes of the pupils, of whom you possibly feel uncertain; it enables you to feel that electric contact which an audience can give, for you will be one of them, not detached as you would be at the front; and best of all, by taking notes of methods for the various activities, you will keep yourself busy Go and help the teacher as soon as any occasion arises. Do not wait to be asked. In particular, whenever individual work begins, assist if need be, with apparatus, and ask if you may go round among the children to observe and correc! Now comes the crux of your as yet untried discipline. At this time, you have nothing to do with the general control, but it is your responsibility, when helping a pupil, to check anyone immediately at hand who is trifling or turning round to see what you are doing. The foundations of sound control are laid with the first contact. The manner in which you treat the pupils you arejl Fftective Teaching Methods actually assisting. and the manner in which vou allow them to treat vou. will determine the nature of that foundation. Many a student-teacher has established his control before he has taken charge of the class Maintain © crisp instructional tone, informed both by kindliness and by reserve, and bevond that, do not concern yourself about the feelings of the children. The children will not be concerned about vour feelings If they have become accustomed to having students-in-training, they are very probably wondering how far they may go in taking liberties with you, with safety. Ensure that their attitude to vou is one of respect. Do not answer the query of the rude child who asks you if you are a student. Simply. but with calm command—tinged with sharpness—tell him he is forgetting his manners, and see that he proceeds with his work. In addition, insist that each addresses you as “Sir” or ‘Me am.” just as he would the established teachers. Keep on your guard. When, therefore, your time comes to take the whole class, vou will already have won your first brush with the skirmishers, and can approach the main group with confidence. Suddenly a contingency arises. The teacher is called out of the room. It may be for a moment only, or fora prolonged period. For vou, it is the most vital occurrence of your practice in that school. At once, take complete charge of the class—at once! Be calm and purposeful—the pupils will not hear your heart thumping—and let them hear your voice, vital with authority as you rise from your seat and go to the front. Now continue the teacher's lesson to the best of your ability. If the subject-matter or the method be unfamiliar, attempt nothing new, but simply revise what has already been done. Should the crisis have occurred when a lesson was just over, begin a new one, the next on the time-table if you can, or in a subject chosen by yourself with information in it which will, you feel, be of interest. Come prepared for such an emergency. The student is expected to take the teacher's place in all emergencies. After his first few days, during which, as noted above, he must be ready for short periods of responsibility, the beginner ought to have made such preparation that he can take over the work of the class, as set out in the time-table, at any time, and if necessary for the whole day.The Students First Day in School In the event of the teacher's absence being prolonged beyond the end of your informative lesson, begin another: mental arithmetic or spelling would be a good sequence. With very little ones, try some form of individual work. The important point is to take charge with power, and keep going, Just such an emergency occurred with a class of twelve-yoar. olds. The student, aged 17, had not taught before. No sooner had the teacher left the room than a hubbub began. In a voice that rang with authority—it was really with nervousness—the novice demanded, “What does this mean?” Pained surprise at 4 lost opportunity for fun was depicted on the children’s faces. “Go on with your work—everyone!” The class-teacher came in some twenty minutes later, and found the pupils industrious and quiet and the student going round assisting. During the day, take any opportunity which offers to practise writing on the blackboard; it requires practice Before leaving in the afternoon, enquire if you may prepare a lesson for next day. If permitted and given a choice of subject, you would be wise to select a recapitulation—ie. revision, with occasional amplifications—of a lesson heard on this frst day The teacher will lend a book willingly. Inexperienced though you be, your précis of the teacher's lesson will keep you on the right lines as you revise and expand the subject-matter. With a new lesson, you might go “off the rails” and the teacher would be compelled, in the interests of the children, his principal obligation, to take the instruction out of your hands. Should the teacher consider you had better wait for a day or two, there is no need to feel abashed. Ask for details of the next day’s work, and at home, prepare a particular lesson for yourself so that you can note in detail—with the greatest possible advantage to yourself—how the teacher himself deals with it. On the succeeding evening, amend your notes, not following your senior slavishly, but taking everything to the bar or reason. These amended notes should be preserved. Addenda (1) Atany intervals, you will have freedom to go to the staff- room, It is both courteous and wise to remember you are only a bird of passage, and to refrain from any thoughtlessFffective Teaching Methods action which might cause the regular teachers to feel you have presumed. On yours behaviour in the staffroom will, to a great extent, depend, not only your own happiness while in the school, but that of other students to come (2) On your second, and every subsequent day, carry on as you have already begun; better if your can. When you begin a lesson you have prepared, the teacher will remain in the room, and you may be shy, therefore, to assert your authority. The teacher is certainly entitled to stop your lesson when he considers you have completed as much as you usefully can, or for any reason which seems good to him; but whether you teach tor a long or for a short period, you must let no diffidence obscure that fact that you are in entire charge of the pupils while actually’ teaching. The control is your responsibility. The teacher will support you if you are thoughtful and firm. Observation Training College Authorities usually require each student to keep a record book for observations made during teaching hours. The headmaster and the class-teacher have the right to examine this book. For immediate use in school, however, and in particular during the first few weeks of teaching practice, it is advisable to keep an unofficial note-book for entering essential points in chronological order. Much will be registered mentally, but details had best be written. Memory is fickle jade. These notes should be transferred, daily, into the official record book, arranged in logical order. Everything which may seem of future service should be entered. No point of method, however trivial it may at first appear, is unimportant. The following headings are suggestive. I. Teaching Methods (a) Average age of pupils. (b) Subject-matter of each lesson in detail—in order to learn what is possible at this stage. (©) Introduction of lessons or of new points—i.e. the connection between the known and the unknown.The Students First Day in School 4 (d) Description—language used—explanations difficulties—intermingling with questions Questions—their various forms (note especially the interrogative word)—how and when introduced (Utilisation of answers, to forward the development of the lesson. (g)_ Use of backboard—summary of main points—copies of sums, sentences, drawings, etc. (h) Revision—incidental, medial, final—to drive home the salient points. (i) Suggestion—use made of it to encourage children towards discovery for themselves. of fe) Obviously, all these cannot be grasped in one day, nor in a few, but by sedulous application, an appreciation of each point will gradually be won, and improved confidence will accompany exact knowledge. When one has become familiar with the atmosphere of the class-room, it would be well, without entirely losing sight of other matters, to concentrate upon one main aspect of technique each day. The observations made, along with one’s own deductions and conclusions, should be added to the day's record in the official book. Reliance upon memory will not serve. The mind becomes too overcrowded to keep in the forefront all the details one would fain have ready for use. A method is suggested by which questions may be usefully observed. The thoughtful reader will invent for himself a useful mode of approach to other points. IL. Reflections, after one’s first attempt at giving a lesson, will naturally follow the realisation that the art of teaching demands a surprisingly high degree of skill. Points of technique will now have a personal significance, and will assume new relative values. These will vary with the individual, but the following are probably the most general considerations at this stage. (1) The teacher’s manner in relation to interest and attention. The use of the voice, in order to arrest and to hold. The value of the eye, for animation and for control. (2) The difficulty of appropriate, precise diction. (3) Questioning; and how to follow up answers without being side-tracked from the main theme. (4) When one ought to stop.55 Fftective Teaching Methods Some of these problems have been touched upon in. the foregoing pages some are dealt with Inter, but it cannot be tov strongh urged upon the novice to take every opportunity of purzling out his perplexities for himselt TN Additroma’ Pomts will be noted as occasion offers. (a) Methods of changing from one lesson to another. Note relaxation permitted to increase the value of the next lesson (Apparatus (books, individual-work materials, etc.) Note title author publisher, size, price of books, and stages for which thev ate suitable. Note, also orderly procedure of distribution—and of collection—for economy fo! time and for inducing orderliness of mind in the children Methods of entering and leaving the room when schoolwork begins and ends. (@) Schoo! organisation le Copy of the class time-table and of the syllabus in each subject. 1\. Child-study at first hand—first, last, and all the time. Initially. the class will appear to the beginner simply as a group. Soon ¢ tew of the children will stamp themselves on his mind as distinct personalities. Gradually, he will come to know each one in the room; he will learn their names—the sooner the better— ané then the class will have become for him a group of known individuals who will excite and hold his interest, and compel him—for they are the justification of his own presence among them—to observe them carefully in all their activities, so that by their reactions they may teach him much that he will not learn trom books. Official Record Book The contents of this book, which are subject to close scrutiny by those in charge of the Jearner’s practical training in the schools, depend upon the student’s own wisdom, and wil] reveal him in a way in which his actual teaching may not. The book will tell if he is keenly observant, orderly minded, and able to differentiate the important and permanent from what is trivial or of onlyye Stidents First Day in School 5 transient effect. It will also show the strength or the weakness of his day-by-day ability When the training course is over the newly qualified teacher vill take his record hook him, as a storehouse of useful method hints, to which he may refer often, particularly during his first few months of responsible teaching. These memoranda must be clear and pointed Vague statements have no value. Students who have recorded mistakenly have later found themselves saying, “I wish I could remember such and such a lesson, or had kept clearer notes of it.” Pointed detailed work pays. In particular, a record in full detail should be preserved of each lesson taught by oneself, and of all those given by others as demonstrations. Below is an example of how a student's record book might read: School: Date Age: 814 (average) Hours: 8.50 A.M.-3.30P M. LESSONS Observed Taught Arithmetic History (revision) Spelling Geography Drill Reading Lessons Observed (1) Arithmetic—The teacher put on the blackboard a square of figures, e.g. 2 9 4 eouNe BoOuN ano Oar 6 The whole class stood. The teacher would point to one line either horizontal or vertical, and as soon as each child had added it up he sat down. The keen competition among the children not to be left standing when the majority were seated, made them work harder. The teacher then began problems, e.g. By how much is 129 greater than 96? To illustrate, she asked how much greater 5 was than 2, and was told the answer was obtained by subtraction.2 Fffective Teaching Methods (2) Spelling—On the blackboard were put words which had caused difficulty in the composition, e.g. presents, invitation, accepts. The pupils spelt each word three times and had three further words to learn at home for next day: All the words were written down in jotters by the pupils, Hint—The teacher pointed out to me that no word can be regarded as being thoroughly known unless it has been correctly used in writing 1 sentences by the pupils individually. (3) Drill—This was taken as last day. The game given was Overhead Ball.” Some of the children do not yet know how to keep their heads up. Many lift their shoulders instead. I helped by showing individuals the right way. (4) Reading for Comprehension—It was a new story for the children, and the teacher first turned to the picture. She asked them what the story would be about, and spent five minutes here for the lesson. Four paragraphs were taken. While the teacher insisted on accuracy and good phrasing, she seemed to aim chiefly at the story. After each paragraph had been read, she asked a few questions on what the story had told us, and then led on to the next one by using such questions as, “What will happen next?” or “What will the elves do now?” At one point I observed that the teacher got the children to deduce from context, almost without help, the meaning of a phrase new to them, Hint—In discussing a picture, e.g. one with animals, make your approach from activities to appearances, mot vice versa; remember how? why? result? creating an atmosp! Lessons taught (1) History—This was unprepare« “The Coming of the Vikings.” The teacl fill any gaps J found. I tried to do so, answers the children gave me I found mysel the story and wandering aside too much. Hint from the Teacher—Build up a synopsis of the lesson on the blackboard as you go. It prevents wandering. (2) Geography—Prepared. Subject: “Tributaries.” (The complete notes are given as usual at the back of the book.) Hint from the Teacher—I did not make sufficient use of local knowledge. d, and was a revision of her told me to be sure to but in trying to use the If losing the thread of4 Effective Lesson Preparation Technique Lesson-preparation is discussed here, before “Explanation,” etc, to encourage the beginner to think and to plan for himself, If he would be a real teacher, he must reverses the process is on the way to becoming a merely routine teacher, however clever he mav become as a craftsman, and of his own free-will is making himself the thrall of his environment. Summarised, the chief points requiring attention in lesson- preparation are these: The stage of the pupils. The aim of the lesson. The Subject-matter. The Method. Memorising. gree With academic learning a person often experiences greater difficulty with perceptive and cognitive learning than with psychomotor activities, and the teacher needs to puta great deal of thought into preparing the lesson plan. The lesson-planning system shown in figure 4 contains the basic elements involved in the production of a lesson plan, while figure 4.22 sets out some aspects for the tea her to consider when producing a plan. Having produced the plan, and before teaching commences, a number of other factors would be considered, one of the mostFffective Teaching Methods - Syllabus Scheme of work Goals obiectives Awsessment= Who When ai What Where tedback Why How a Subject matter Notes Student ‘Aids activity Resources Teacher activity Tearning experience Chaanges in behavior Attainment of goaly Figure 1, Lesson-planning SystemFffective Lesaon Preparation Technique important being the role of language in the process of earning Language and learning are mutually dependent. Without adequate knowledge of the language related to a given subject, little or no learning may occur. Teacher talk should be pitched at a level ty suit the class and should not (in general) take up too much of the available time. Analyses of classroom interaction have revealed that all too often, teacher talk dominates a lesson. Teachers tend to like the sound of their own voices and this does not necessarily result in learning by the passive listeners (even if they remain attentive to a degree). The mode of instruction and conditions for learning should also be considered when producing a plan. According to Gange there are either classes of learning, ranging ‘rom signal- learning to problem-solving, each class involving a different level oF complexity and calling for different reaching methods? The lesson plan should therefore provide for the appropriate activities and conditions needed to achieve the desired outcome Transfer of training should be allowed for sequence of instruction. When building on previous knowledge the instructor should be aware of the difficulties encountered >y students where tasks appear to be similar to those previously learned, but in fact differ slightly. Advantage should also betaken of the positive effects of transfer where existing knowledge or skills may be drawn upon to speed up the leaning of similar tasks. Reviews and recapitulations play an important role in reinforcing knowledge recently acquire, and where learning appears to grind toa halt, a knowledge of the phenomena known as learning plateaux may help to explain the temporary lack of progress. en planning the The plan should incorporate alternative strategies to be employed if class discipline breaks down due to some weakness in presentation or boredom brought about by inactivity. The quality of presentation and effectiveness of learning depends largely upon a well-thought-out lesson plan well executed,x Fffective Teaching Methods The Uses of Language in Teaching The Acquisition of Language Language is essential to human perception, thinking and awareness. It is a universal form of communication adopted by human beings in which a svstem of symbols or sound patterns convevs readily interpreted standardised meanings to others. Spoken language is a product of a person’s environment and is acouired during prolonged interaction with others who can dv converse In the beginning, babies make noises in order to signal a need. pleasure of discomfort. The mother interprets the sound and responds by word of action, or both. The baby imitates sounds made by the mother and links these to behaviour; and so learning commences. Later at school, when responding to questions put by the teacher. children sometimes use incorrect grammar, or words in an incorrect context. The teacher repeats there response correcting the statement and the child registers the correct version, thereby adding to its language store. English lessons in schools account for only a small proportion of @ child's waking hours, and so the majority of language acquisition must take place elsewhere. ‘Elsewhere’ consists of the child's environment and includes family, school and peer-groups. Media such as television, radio, cinema, newspapers and comics greatly influence the vocabulary learned; and the language code adopted by the child is a function of these sources, together with family class, home environment, lifestyle and residential area. Care should therefore be exercised in selecting media to which the child will be exposed. The pre-school period is an important time for a child in terms of the acquisition of language. Fluency and the range of words known to a child depends, to a large extent, upon the parents’ ability to expose the child to correct language forms. A parent should take the trouble to explain the ‘whys’ and ‘wherefores’ in answers to a child’s questions in order to foster an inquisitive mind. This promotes conversation and further questions. Yes/No’ answers, or worse still, impatient short snappy replies, discourage the child from asking questions and inhibits its ability to learn alrEffective Lesson Preparation Technique The Student’s Contribution Practice is one of the best methods of increasing 4 person language store and developing, skills in the use of words. Teachers should encourage their students to talk and write 4s much as js possible in order to get the best out of a given learning experience This can be achieved by creating a rewarding atmosphere in which students can attempt to put the concept being taught into their own words and are able to discuss the problem as they see it. The teacher can help by carefully choosing the words he uses to introduce the concept, by putting questions and by making the most of the resulting exchanges. The type of question which elicits a greater amount of student response is of the open-ended type where a number of different answer are often quite acceptable. Reasoning-type question also call for students to think aloud and to construct from memory a logically organised sequence of ideas; observation question relate to demonstrations and phenomena which students may observe and which require them to perceive. The type of questions described provide good sources of student activity and are therefore to be preferred to closed question which only one acceptable answers, or naming question which invite a response without requiring the student to demonstrate insight. In this article ‘Language and Learning in the Classroom Douglas Barnes outlines some of his findings made dunnag research into classroom interaction. He observed eleven-year-vld pupils during twelve lessons in various secondary subjects and found that the pupils were, on the whole, passive recipients of instruction, their role being mainly confined to indicating a short answers that they could regurgitate what had previously been taught. He reported that: {a) On only eleven occasions did a pupil, by question, or by offering a statement that was not a reply to the teacher, initiate a sequence of interaction. (©) There were few occasions when pupils could be said to be ‘thinking aloud’, that is, reorganising learning or solving a problem by verbalising it. Most contributions from pupils were of one word or a little longer.Fffective Teaching Methods On only two occasions was there exploration of the meaning of a word, though definition were asked for and given Only in one lesson (physics) did pupils frequently mention out-of-school experience in order to relate it to new it to new ideas being learnt Barnes's research also embraced an examination of teachers’ demands on pupils. His study of teachers’ questions revealed that d In many lessons a majority of the teachers’ question asked tor tactual replies. Teachers hardly ever asked questions to get information which they did not possess: they used questions mainly to test recollection of what had been taught previously. In some lessons pupils were asked to read aloud: this often implied that they were to go over a sequence of thought given by the teacher. Teachers hardly ever tollowed a brief reply by requesting the pupil to expand it or make it more explicit. Teachers not infrequently interrupted pupils who did try to answer at length. Question which asked pupils to refer to first hand experience outside school were almost absent. Clearly, the shortcomings in teachers’ presentations of curricular knowledge shown up in Barnes's research must be overcome if students are to benefit by more active participation in jearning. The same sort of thinking should be applied to the training of industrial staff, so that trainees may be more highly motivated in their approach to the acquisition of skills, together with relevant knowledge. 1. Accepts Feeling. Accepts and clarifies an attitude or the feeling tone of a pupils ina nonthreatening manner. Feeling may be positive or negative. Predicting and recal- ling feelings are included. Response 2. Praises or encourages. Praises or encourages pupils action or behaviour. Jokes that releaseEffective Lesson Preparation Technique 3 [ | \Teacher \Talk Initiation Response upil Talk | Tension, Dut not at the expense of] another individual: nodding head, or saying ‘Um, hm” or ‘go on’ are included | Accepts for users ideas of pupils. | Clarifying, building, or developing ideas suggested by a pupils Teacher extensions of pupils ideas are included but as the teacher beings more of his own ides into play, shift to category five Asks questions, asking a question | about content or procedure, based | on teacher ideas, with the intent that a pupil will answer Lecturing. Giving facts or opinions about content or procedures expressing his own ideas, giving his own explanation, or citing an | authority other than a pupil. Giving Directions. Directions, commands, or orders to which a p upil is expected to comply. | Criticising or justifying authority. | Statements intended to change | pupils behaviour from non-| acceptable to acceptable patters; | bawling someone out; stating why the teacher is doing what he is doing; extreme self-reference. Pupil-talk-response. Talk by pupils in response to teacher. Teacher initiates the contact or solicits pupil statement or structures the situation. Freedom to express own ideas is limited. Pupil-talk-initiation. Talk by pupils which they initiate. Expressing own ideas; initiating a new topic; freedom to develop opinion andEffective Teaching Methods 4 pan — Tine of thought, Tike asking thoughtful questions; going | bevond the existing structure Kilence 10. Silence of confusion. Pauses, short periods of silence and periods of confusion in which communication cannot be understood by the | observer, Figure 2 Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categorics Analysing Periods of Oral Work Ned Flanders developed a social interaction model by which classroom interaction could be recorded and analysed. He classified the statements and behaviour or students and teachers into ten categories (see figure 4.2). An observer sits in a class and at the end of each three- second period categories and records the communication behaviour of that period. Alternatively, a tape recording may be made of the lesson and categorised later. The result ate then analysed and the percentage of time given over to each type of behaviour calculated. Table or Results Category 1 Zz | 3), 4/5 6 ra 8 9 10 Total - [ | %e A high proportion of categories 5, 6 and 7would indicate that the teacher had been very direct, whereas a high proportion of categories 8 and 9 would indicate an indirect style with high student activity. In his unit, ‘Intervening in the Learning process’, David Moseley writers: ‘Despite al] that we hear about child-centred education, the ordinary teacher loves the sound of his own voice’, and gives a table of typical results following an analysis of classroom discourse.Effective Lesson Preparation Technique Teacher asks questions 10% | Other teacher talk | 50% Pupils ask questions Other pupil talk Silence or confusion 1 Figure 3 He then goes on to say that the shown that in a class of forty, on average, each pupils talks for less than | per cent of the time available while the teacher may be talking for 60 per cent of the lesson (see Figure 3). Task 1. Tape record one of your own instructional periods or lessons and carry out an analysis 2. Given that a class consists of thirty pupils and that a lesson lasts two hours, calculate the time occupied by each category shown in Figure 3. : Calculate also the average amount of time each student spends talking. Language Used by Teachers The teacher must always be conscious of the language he is using. There is often a gulf between teacher and student because, in general, general, teacher tend to use an elaborate code of language which is not readily understood by all. Technical terms also produce barriers and hinder learning if used thoughtlessly and without adequate explanation. Students will imitate the teacher and learn to use technical terms without really knowing their meaning, and so the teacher must ensure that he is handing over the meaning as well as the words. Teacher need a far more sophisticated insight into the implications of the language they use, and they should recognise the linguistic and conceptual difficulties experienced by students. A ‘register of language’ should be built up to suit the students. A picture or chalkboard sketch is worth a thousand words, and itis better that the concept be understood from the picture backed up and reinforced by words than to rely on words alone.6 Effective Teaching Methods Formal Language This process is based upon the principle that carbon will dissolve interstitially in solid iron, provided that the iron is in face-centred cubic lattice form which obtains above the upper critical temperature for the steel under consideration. The mild steel components are packed in carburising media together with energisers such as sodium carbonate and barium carbonate. During the heating process, carbon diffuses into the surface of the steel, thereby increasing the carbon content up to the solid solubility Informal Language The hardness of a steel depends upon the amount of carbon present in it and how we heat-treat it. Mild steel doesn’t contain much carbon. Therefore, if we try to harden it, we don’t get much luck. Sometimes we need a shaft which is tough and able to withstand shock loadings but which, at the same time, possesses a hard wear-resistant surface, Mild steel is relatively tough but as it doesn’t harden very well we have to increase the carbon content of the outer skin. Then, when we heat-treat it correctly provide a hard wear-resistant surface and still ossess a tough core. P 'S Carbon Atoms Carburising-diagrammatic Representation of Steel Absorbing Carbon AtomsFffective Lesson Preparation Technique 7 We start by carrying out a process called carburising, during which carbon soaks into the surface of the steel, thereby increasing its carbon content. The shaft is packed into a steel box surrounded by carbon- rich material, such as charcoal, and chemical energiser, such as soda ash. Chemical firms supply these materials ready for use. A lid is placed on the box and sealed with fire clay. If we leave the box like this nothing will happen to the steel shaft. But, if the box is heated to about 900-950°C known as the upper critical temperature range for mild steel, the shaft undergoes a change in structure. The iron atoms which make up the shift rearrange themselves and allow small carbon atoms from the charcoal to creep into spaces between themselves. Thee small spaces are called interstices. “Yo Depth of case Core-mild steel as purchased Case now 1% carbon A carburised shaft The surface of the mild steel shaft absorbs carbon just like a sponge soaks up water, the energiser speeds up the process; that’s why it’s included. The box remains in the furnace for about six hours, and during this time carbon penetrates to a depth of about 1 mm all over the shaft. The furnace is switched off and the box cools down to room temperature. The carbon remains in the steel; it cannot escape. The shaft now has a case containing about 1 per cent carbon and the core remains the same as it was originally, with about 0.15 per cent carbon. If the shaft is later subjected to the correct heat treatment process it will have a tough core and hard case—but that’s another story.38 Effective Teaching Methods Which of the two examples do you consider to be more suitable for a craft apprentice or inexperienced trainee? The Imbalance of Superiority between Instructor and Trainee There is frequently a psychological imbalance between the instructor and trainee, especially in the more formal classroom situation. This is particularly so in the case of mature trainees who have not been exposed to ‘book-learning’ for many years. The classroom itself is likely to bring back memories of schooldays and schoolmasters, memories of cold, detached figures commanding obedience from their podiums by virtue of the authority vested in them as teachers, subservience to the teacher's whims being an accepted role for the pupils. In further education and in industrial situations, a different type of imbalance is perceived by the trainee. The instructor possesses superior skills and ability. He is the master of his craft of subject, and as the source of information or fountain of knowledge, he directs the activities of the trainee, who engages in set tasks while the instructor supervises. The instructor is a source of social reinforcement and holds the power to reward or punish the trainee according to his performance. If the trainee does well he may be praised; if he performs badly he runs the risk of being criticised, which results in a loss of self-esteem. Power is based on the instructor’s expertise and position. The instructor should be aware of this imbalance in power and should take steps to reduce the accompanying emotional tension by providing a secure atmosphere in which learning may take lace. Steps should be taken by the instructor to redress the imbalance as early as possible. A warm, friendly attitude should be adopted, backed by an enthusiastic approach towards the task of instructing. Trainees should be encouraged to speak freely and if similarities between the instructor and trainee are perceived, these similarities tend to increases, resulting in enhanced self- esteem for the trainee. The instructor should avoid sarcasm and should at all times be respectful to the trainees. He should display patience, tact and diplomacy and be wiling to help trainees through difficulties.Fffective Lesson Preparation Technique 39 Integrity and high personal standards should go a long way towards overcoming the inevitable initial imbalance. Designing a Training Plan The need for training can arise from a variety of sources. The more common areas where training or retraining can be most effective include situations in which there is evidence of production inefficiency and poor worker relations. A selection of these might include: Excessive tool breakage; High machinery down-time; Excessive cycle times; Poor quality; High scrap-rates; Unsafe working practises; High accident rates; Poor motivation; Grievances; Absenteeism; High labour turnover; Poor communications. Having identified the need, the next step is to think about preparing a course of training designed to improve matters A planning questionnaire is a useful aid to preliminary thinking. It function is to give a broad outline of some of the important factors relating generally to course design, and to give greater insight to the problem. After completing the questionnaire, a clearer picture of the training needs and overall requirements of the proposed course should emerge, anda remaining programme may then be designed. The programme should follow well-proven and established teaching practice. The outcome of the course should be that learning shall have taken place, that is, relatively permanent change in behaviour will have occurred as a result of the practice and experience encountered during the course of instruction.40 Effective Teaching Methods Preparing a Course Planning Questionnaire 1. What are course objectives? What is training required for? Is the purpose to Teach manual skills? Impart information and increase knowledge? Improve attitudes? 2. What is nature of group? Will it be Co-operative or obstructive? Hostile? Suspicious? 3. Which instructional method would be best: Lecture? Lesson? Demonstration and practive? Case study? Role-play exercise? Discussion? Syndicate? Programmed learning? Learning package? 4. Who will give the instruction: Management? Training officer? Instructor? Specialist guest lecturer? 5. What aids will be required? 6. Where will the instruction take place? 7. How long will it last? 8. How will terminal objectives be measured? 9. Who will conduct follow-up? 10. How much will it cost? Training Programme Format A typical training programme format is given in figure 4.4. Each step follows a logical sequence. The starting point is the writing of objectives stating in behavioural terms what the trainee is expected to be able to do as an outcome of training. Then, anEffective Lesson Preparation Technique 41 overall plan of instruction should be laid out, following the form of the examples shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. Detailed lesson plans should then be produced. The remaining steps follow conventional teaching, practice. Write aims and objectives in behavioural terms Devise plan of instruction Select instructional material tequired to satisfy aims Organise in short logical steps | Grade in order of difficulty Introduce material at appropriate level of difficulty Allow student to learn at own pace Involve student by active participation Evaluate progress Feed back knowledge of results Master each section before on to next Evaluate programme and modify as necessary Figure 4 Training Programme Format. Effective Teaching Methog, ds The Structure of a Lesson A lesson consists of three main stages: introduction, a developme, stage and a conclusion, Some teachers lime to start a lesson with a short written quiz based upon the previous week's work, or, : the case of mathematics, some quick easy mental ari imate questions. This approach involves the whole group and gets thers heads down. The main point is to get every member of the class working as quickly as possible. Delays in getting things Moving encourage social conversation and once this has started it is ne always easy to focus attention on the subject to be discussed, The results of the quiz can be checked by the group after exchangin, papers, and ateas of difficulty can then be revised, 8 Job: To operate a ‘Thermpack’ heat-sealing machine in the Surgical Disposable Products Department Title: | Heat Sealer Operator (Hyperdermic Needle Packaging) ia Time Btate| Action Instructor Allocated | (hours) Induction 1 |The company and its range Line manager Ye of products. Markets and quality standards. 2 | Tour of works. Section 1 supervisor 3. | Company rules. Conditions of | Personnel 1 service and fringe benefits. 4 |Health and Safety at Work Act | Safety officer 1 and accident prevention, fire, safety and hygiene. Basic training 5 |Demonstration of heat sealer. Process worke: “ 6 | Adjusting temperature control. | Training % 7 | Setting air cylinder operating % pressure. 8 | Loading unsealed hyperdermic ” needle pack to machine. 9 | Locating plastic sealing strip % ‘“Effective Lesson Preparation Technique a] 11 | Cropping, surplus plastic material 12 | Bjecting heat-sealed packs 13 | Checking, condition of seal 14 | Reporting, of defects and breakdowns 15 | Maintaining clean working conditions. 16 | Practise to reach experienced worker standards. 17 | Appraisal of performance. Total Programme Time... 8 pion |Components of a lesson Specifying learning lobjectives lexposition t set assignment Lesson-planning jand preparation Short talks by students B interrelationships in the classroom 10 | Operating, heat-sealing platen Discussion on lesson- planning Presentation of lesson 1 plans by students \ supervisor | 4 | 23% 1 Figure 5 Training Specification fies] Lecture Topic Group Activities Student Introduction to course Discussion-further Short talk examples of stating objectives Tutor talk on verbal 4 Lesson pian concepts Informal methods Discussion on use of Discussion including questions and _ | original methods answers and discussion _ | Presentation of lesson plans by students | 5 |Display, demonstration Examples by tutor of | Demons- land the learning of skillsanalysis and tration concept: teaching Discussions led by students.a4 Fffective Teaching, Methods Classwork practical and] Presentation of Microp project activities demonstrations by | Brief by tutor on micro. | students teaching. teaching 4 e 7 Evaluation of work Microteaching L rt k | Final review of course Questions and answer session Students’ comment on Course design and Presentation Figure 6 Plan of Instruction: PracticalTeaching Course for Instructors Programme The lecture programme will consist of a survey of teaching aids will concentrate on giving the instructor a knowledge of the existing range of media. It is hoped that the students will acquire the practical skill of using these aids and preparing material. There is available a range of handout material dealing with technical data and methods of preparation and use of those items of equipment covered in this survey. Period 1 Introduction—introduction to the course: aims; rogramme; resources available for instructors’ use; an approach to the use of teaching aids. 2 Display—a survey of non-projected aids for classroom use: the chalkboard, newsprint pad, felt and magnet boards; charts, diagrams, classroom displays. Reprographics—methods of producing class handouts: spirit and ink stencil duplication; small offset; copying techniques—heat, transfer, dyeline, xerox; economic considerations. 4 The overhead projector—the projector: its uses; sitting; methods of use; as a writing surface; as a projector; masking and overlay techniques; simple movement; experiments. woFffective Lesson Preparation Technique 15 5 Still photography —applications of photography to | classroom use; equipment; economics; strip and slide | projects; screens; back projection 6 Cine photography—film projectors: standard and super 8 mm, 16 mm; sound equipment; economics. loop-film projectors 7 Recorded sound—the use of sound recordings in the classroom: equipment; record and tape techniques methods of recording from broadcast and live performances; use of tape/slide synchronisation technique. 8 Educational radio and_ television—national programmes; ocal stations; CCTV, use of video. recorders; television as a classroom aid Figure 7 Educational Technology— An Introductory Course for Instructors Lesson aims and objectives should be given in the introduction proper, together with reasons for their inclusion plus some form of incentive. If the ‘reasons for’ and ‘incentives’ can be related to the group’s world, there is likely to be a greater commitment to work hard during the lesson. The developmental stage is used to introduce basic principles and to build up knowledge progressively. Students are led ‘rom the known to the unknown and from the easy to the difficult in small steps. The group should be actively involved in ‘doing’ for much of the time. The teacher organises activity in the form of teaching/practising, note-taking, discussing, working through handouts and answering questions. The developmental stage should occupy. The conclusion enables the teacher to consolidate the new work, to check the effectiveness of the lesson and to ‘look forward by briefly outlining the subject for the next session. Sometimes an objective-type test in set which covers the lesson’s subjects-matter, in order to evaluate effectiveness. Homework may then be set. Desirable Features to Include in the Lesson The lesson should be structured so as to provide a variety of activity for both teacher and student. The use of audio-visual aids