Medical Biochemistry

(Biomolecules: structures, properties and

biochemical/biological importance)
Dr Lawal A. O
BIOMOLECULES- INTRODUCTION & DEFINITION

❖ The human body is composed of roughly 30 trillion cells that collectively perform the essential
functions of life

❖ The cells can perform these life-sustaining tasks with the help of several organic molecules
present in them

❖ These organic molecules are referred to as biomolecules

❖ The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called
biological macromolecules (Biomolecules)

❖ The biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures, and they are involved in a vast
array of life functions

❖ They are composed of more than 25 naturally occurring elements, with the primary elements
being carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur
❖ Carbon compounds have major involvement in the formation of biomolecules

❖ They covalently bind with other elements to form several other compounds

❖ Some biomolecules are considered derivatives of hydrocarbons, they’re formed by replacing

hydrogen atoms from functional groups like alcohols, amines, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic
groups

❖ Given below is a list of small biomolecules and the macromolecules that are formed after the
polymerization of these small monomer units

Small Biomolecules Macromolecules

1. Sugars Carbohydrates
2. Fatty acids Fats/Lipids
3. Amino acids Proteins
4. Nucleotides Nucleic acids
 Types of Biomolecules
❖ The four major types of biomolecules include:
1. carbohydrates,
2. lipids,
3. nucleic acids, and
4. Proteins

❖ Most of the other compounds are derivatives of these major primary compounds
Carbohydrate Biomolecules

❖ Carbohydrates are the most abundant among the major classes of biomolecules

❖ Most of the carbohydrates follow the general formula: Cn (H2O) n, from where they derive
their name, which means hydrates of carbon

❖ where n is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to
hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules.

❖ However, not all carbohydrates follow this formula and are slightly different in structure
from this rule

❖ Chemically, they are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many
hydroxyl groups added usually on each carbon atom not part of the aldehyde
or ketone functional group

❖ Based on the number of monomeric units, carbohydrates may be

monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides.
a. Monosaccharides are carbohydrates of only one simple sugar
❖ Examples are glucose, fructose, and galactose

❖ They are the most fundamental type of carbohydrates

❖ Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous

solutions, they are usually found in the ring form

❖ The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6

❖ Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common
monosaccharides

❖ Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6),
they differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing
arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain.
b. Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharide units
❖ Examples are sucrose, maltose, and lactose.

c. Oligosaccharides are those consisting of two to ten simple monosaccharide units

❖ Examples are raffinose, maltotriose, and maltotetraose

d. Those with a larger number of monosaccharide units are called polysaccharides

❖ Examples are starch, cellulose, and glycogen

❖ When a polysaccharide is made up of monosaccharide units of the same type it is referred to as

a homopolysaccharide (or homoglycan)

❖ whereas a polysaccharide is comprised of more than one type of monosaccharide it is

called heteropolysaccharide (or heteroglycan)
Structures of Carbohydrates
Sucrose
Structures of Carbohydrates
Functions of Carbohydrates
❖ Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all
natural sources of carbohydrates

❖ Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar

❖ In most living species, glucose is an important source of energy. During cellular respiration,
energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)

❖ Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis, and
the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant

❖ The excess synthesized glucose is often stored as starch that is broken down by other
organisms that feed on plants.

❖ Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants
Lipid Biomolecules

❖ Lipids are organic compounds that are readily soluble in a nonpolar solvent (e.g. ether) but not
in a polar solvent (e.g water)

❖ Lipids are hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar
molecules. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon or
carbon-hydrogen bonds.

❖ In biological membranes, the lipid component has a hydrophilic head that may be a glycolipid, a
phospholipid, or a sterol (e.g. cholesterol) and a hydrophobic tail.

❖ . Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.

Functions of Lipids
❖ Lipids perform many different functions in a cell

❖ Their major biological functions involve energy storage

❖ Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats

❖ Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals

❖ Structural component of the cell membrane, and cell signaling.

❖ Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of the
plasma membrane
Nucleic Acids Biomolecules

❖ Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life

❖ They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell

❖ The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA)

❖ DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to
multicellular mammals

❖ The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis

❖ The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to
communicate with the rest of the cell

❖ Other types of RNA are also involved in protein synthesis and its regulation
❖ DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides

❖ The nucleotides combine with each other to form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA

❖ Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon)

sugar, and a phosphate group

❖ Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to a

phosphate group.
Protein Biomolecules

❖ Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most
diverse range of functions of all macromolecules

❖ Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective; they may serve in transport,
storage, or membranes; or they may be toxins or enzymes

❖ Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique
function

❖ Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly

❖ They are all, however, polymers of amino acids, arranged in a linear sequence
❖ The functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct
amino acids that form long chains, and the amino acids can be in any order

❖ For example, proteins can function as enzymes or hormones

❖ Enzymes, which are produced by living cells, are catalysts in biochemical reactions (like
digestion) and are usually proteins

❖ Each enzyme is specific for the substrate (a reactant that binds to an enzyme) upon which it
acts

❖ Enzymes can function to break molecular bonds, to rearrange bonds, or to form new bonds

❖ An example of an enzyme is salivary amylase, which breaks down amylose, a component of

starch.
Amino acids

❖ Are the monomers that make up proteins

❖ Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom
bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a hydrogen atom

❖ Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central
carbon atom known as the R group

❖ The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids; otherwise, the
amino acids are identical.
❖ The chemical nature of the R group determines the chemical nature of the amino acid within
its protein (that is, whether it is acidic, basic, polar, or nonpolar)

❖ The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a protein’s shape, size, and
function

❖ Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond,
which is formed by a dehydration reaction

❖ The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid combine,
releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond

❖ The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides

❖ While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is
technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or
polypeptides that have combined together, have a distinct shape, and have a unique function