Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Unit III

3.0 Data Communications & Networks:

Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers
and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to
exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet.

Computer Networks

A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is called

computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among
them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.
Applications of Communication & Computer Network
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a [Link] provide numerous
advantages:

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices

 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

3.1 Modes of Communication

There are three modes of transmission, namely: simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. The
transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two connected devices.
The primary difference between three modes of transmission is that in a simplex mode of
transmission the communication is unidirectional, or one-way; whereas in the half duplex mode of
transmission the communication is two-directional, but the channel is interchangeably used by both of
the connected devices. On the other hand, in the full duplex mode of transmission, the
communication is bi-directional or two-way, and the channel is used by both of the connected devices
simultaneously.
Comparison Chart

Basis for
Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Comparison

Direction of Two-directional, one at a Two-directional,

Unidirectional
Communication time simultaneously

Send / Receive Sender can only send Sender can send and Sender can send and

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

data receive data, but one a receive data

time simultaneously

Worst performing Best performing mode of

Performance Better than Simplex
mode of transmission transmission

Keyboard and
Example Walkie-talkie Telephone
monitor
Simplex

In simplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver occurs in only one
direction. The sender can only send the data, and the receiver can only receive the data. The
receiver cannot reply to the sender.

Simplex transmission can be thought of as a one-way road in which the traffic travels only in one
direction—no vehicle coming from the opposite direction is allowed to drive through.

To take a keyboard / monitor relationship as an example, the keyboard can only send the input to the
monitor, and the monitor can only receive the input and display it on the screen. The monitor cannot
reply, or send any feedback, to the keyboard.

Half Duplex

The communication between sender and receiver occurs in both directions in half duplex
transmission, but only one at a time. The sender and receiver can both send and receive the
information, but only one is allowed to send at any given time. Half duplex is still considered a one-
way road, in which a vehicle traveling in the opposite direction of the traffic has to wait till the road is
empty before it can pass through.

For example, in walkie-talkies, the speakers at both ends can speak, but they have to speak one by
one. They cannot speak simultaneously.

Full Duplex

In full duplex transmission mode, the communication between sender and receiver can occur
simultaneously. The sender and receiver can both transmit and receive at the same time. Full duplex
transmission mode is like a two-way road, in which traffic can flow in both directions at the same time.

For example, in a telephone conversation, two people communicate, and both are free to speak and
listen at the same time.

Key Differences of the Three Transmission Modes

 In simplex mode, the signal is sent in one direction. In half duplex mode, the signal is sent in
both directions, but one at a time. In full duplex mode, the signal is sent in both directions at
the same time.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

 In simplex mode, only one device can transmit the signal. In half duplex mode, both devices
can transmit the signal, but one at a time. In full duplex mode, both devices can transmit the
signal at the same time.
 Full duplex performs better than half duplex, and half duplex in turn performs better than
simplex.
 Simplex: The keyboard sends the command to the monitor. The monitor cannot reply to the
keyboard.
 Half duplex: Using a walkie-talkie, both speakers can communicate, but they have to take
turns.
 Full duplex: Using a telephone, both speakers can communicate at the same time.
 The full duplex transmission mode offers the best performance among the three, on account of
the fact that it maximizes the amount of bandwidth available.

3.2 Analog and Digital Signal

Analog and Digital are the different forms of signals. Signals are used to carry information from one
device to another. Analog signal is a continuous wave that keeps on changing over a time period.
Digital signal is discrete in nature. The fundamental difference between analog and digital signal is
that analog signal is represented by the sine waves whereas, the digital signal is represented by
square waves. Lets us learn some more differences between analog and digital signal with the help of
comparison chart shown below.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
COMPARISON

Basic An analog signal is a continuous A digital signal is a discrete wave

wave that changes over a time that carries information in binary
period. form.

Representation An analog signal is represented by a A digital signal is represented by

sine wave. square waves.

Description An analog signal is described by the A digital signal is described by bit

amplitude, period or frequency, and rate and bit intervals.
phase.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

BASIS FOR
ANALOG SIGNAL DIGITAL SIGNAL
COMPARISON

Range Analog signal has no fixed range. Digital signal has a finite numbers
i.e. 0 and 1.

Distortion An analog signal is more prone to A digital signal is less prone to

distortion. distortion.

Transmit An analog signal transmit data in the A digital signal carries data in the
form of a wave. binary form i.e. 0 nad 1.

Example The human voice is the best Signals used for transmission in a
example of an analog signal. computer are the digital signal.

3.3 Modems
Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a computer or
another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet. It converts or "modulates"
an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a computer can
recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into an analog signal that
can be sent over standard telephone lines.
The first modems were "dial-up," meaning they had to dial a phone number to connect to an ISP.
These modems operated over standard analog phone lines and used the same frequencies as
telephone calls, which limited their maximum data transfer rate to 56 Kbps. Dial-up modems also
required full use of the local telephone line, meaning voice calls would interrupt the Internet
connection.
Modern modems are typically DSL or cable modems, which are considered "broadband" devices.
DSL modems operate over standard telephone lines, but use a wider frequency range. This allows for
higher data transfer rates than dial-up modems and enables them to not interfere with phone calls.
Cable modems send and receive data over standard cable television lines, which are typically coaxial
cables. Most modern cable modems support DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface
Specification), which provides an efficient way of transmitting TV, cable Internet, and digital phone
signals over the same cable line.
NOTE: Since a modem converts analog signals to digital and vice versa, it may be considered
an ADC or DAC. Modems are not needed for fiber optic connections because the signals are
transmitted digitally from beginning to end.

3.4 Topologies of Network

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to
the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network.
All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast
to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the b
bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintained,
i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that occur
oc
when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

Advantages of Bus topology:

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both
the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node
to another node.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the
network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring
are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost
is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on
the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server
are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to

bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on
the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of
the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other
in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as
star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology
and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of
the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting
the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of
the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling, network devices, etc.

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 Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

3.5 Internet

Alternatively referred to as the net or web, the Internet (interconnected network) was initially
developed to aid in the progress of computing technology by linking academic computer centers. The
Internet as we know it today first started being developed in the late 1960s with the start
of ARPANET and transmitted its first message on Friday, October 29, 1969. In 1993, the Internet
experienced one of its largest growths to date and today is accessible by people all over the world.

The Internet contains billions of web pages created by people and companies from around the world,
making it a limitless place to locate information and entertainment. The Internet also has thousands of
services that help make life more convenient. For example, many financial institutions offer online
banking that enables a user to manage and view their account from different locations.

The internet is the most cost-effective communications method in the world, in which the following
services are instantly available:

 Email
 Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
 Online movies and gaming
 Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Instant messaging
 Internet forums
 Social networking
 Online shopping
 Financial services

INTERNET AND ITS USES : (BRIEF ESSAY)

The internet has intruded globally into everything than we could imagine. There are hardly people
who do not rely on the internet for their daily life. Internet has emerged in such a way that we happen
to use it to run our daily life in some way. The uses of Internet are endless; a few of them are as
follows:

Education : Internet is a valuable source for a lot of information. Data and information related all
fields are updated in the internet. Students can spend a few minutes over the internet to read their
relevant study materials. Many students use internet for intense research on their projects.
Communication : With internet, communication has become better and easier. One can call and talk
to someone over the internet. Video calls are an interesting option with communication through
internet. Mailing is one another form of communication, which is widely used in daily corporate life.
Current Updates : Daily updates and current happenings are made available in the internet instantly.
Internet is considered the real time hub for all updates about politics, sports, entertainment, science,
business and many other fields.
Corporate Base : The corporate world relies on internet for file sharing, data transfer, internal
communication and external communication; and many other purposes. In simple words, internet
forms the base of the corporate today.
E-Commerce : Other than using internet for business purposes, a business itself can be started and
accomplished through the internet. E-Commerce has lot of advantages like reaching the customers
easily, giving a lot of information about the business, clearing customer queries instantly and making
the payment also possible over the internet.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

What's the difference between the Web and the Internet?

The Internet is like a superhighway (gray) connecting the world's computers together. The World
Wide Web is a kind of traffic that can travel on that highway. In this example, two web pages (cars)
are traveling from the server (the computer where they're stored) at the bottom to web browsers
running on the laptops at the top. Other kinds of traffic that can travel on the Internet include
email, VoIP phone calls, torrents, and files shared peer-to-peer.

3.6 Web Browser and its function

A web browser is an application software that is used to present or receive resources that is
traversing through the World Wide Web (www). An information resource can be images, videos, web
pages or any other content identified by URL. Browsers plays the client side interface role in Client
Server Architecture. Browser allow client device to connect to a webserver and read the HTML
files located on it. When the web browser send request to web server, these files are transferred to
your computer as response that is interpreted by web browser to display the content. In the easiest
words we can describe a web browser as a tool or software to surf internet quickly and efficiently.
Some of the most common and popular web browsers can be named as Microsoft Edge (Internet
Explorer), Google Chrome, Apple Safari, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape, Opera etc.

Web browsers, now-a-days, are well functioned software packages that can easily translate and
display applications, html page, JavaScript, Ajax etc. related contents on web server. Web browsers
also offer plugins for better performance and multimedia contents. Although web browsers are mainly
used to work with World Wide Web, it can also be utilized for accessing information & resources
provided by web server in private networks.

Function of Web Browser

The main functions of web browser is to fetch or retrieve informative resources from World Wide Web
to the client/ user on demand, translate those files received from web server and display those
content to the user and allow the client /user to access all other relevant resources & information via
hyperlinks.

When the user inputs any URL (uniform resource locator) in the web browser, the user is navigated to
that website by the browser quickly. Let us have a look on its processing. When user type any URL,
for example [Link] the prefix of the URL decide how to retrieve it. The URL prefixes
that the web browser is not able to handle directly is sent to related application. Like default email app
is responsible to handle mailto: URL prefix. Following table gives an idea about some of the common
URL prefixes:

5.7 Concept of Search Engines

A search engine is a web-based tool that enables users to locate information on the World Wide Web.
Popular examples of search engines are Google, Yahoo!, and MSN Search. Search engines utilize
automated software applications (referred to as robots, bots, or spiders) that travel along the Web,
following links from page to page, site to site. The information gathered by the spiders is used to
create a searchable index of the Web.
Search engines have three primary functions:

1. Crawl: Scour the Internet for content, looking over the code/content for each URL they find.
2. Index: Store and organize the content found during the crawling process. Once a page is in
the index, it’s in the running to be displayed as a result to relevant queries.
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

3. Rank: Provide the pieces of content that will best answer a searcher's query, which means
that results are ordered by most relevant to least relevant.

What is search engine crawling?

Crawling is the discovery process in which search engines send out a team of robots (known as
crawlers or spiders) to find new and updated content. Content can vary — it could be a webpage, an
image, a video, a PDF, etc. — but regardless of the format, content is discovered by links.

Googlebot starts out by fetching a few web pages, and then follows the links on those webpages to
find new URLs. By hopping along this path of links, the crawler is able to find new content and add it
to their index called Caffeine — a massive database of discovered URLs — to later be retrieved when
a searcher is seeking information that the content on that URL is a good match for.

What is a search engine index?

Search engines process and store information they find in an index, a huge database of all the
content they’ve discovered and deem good enough to serve up to searchers.

Search engine ranking

When someone performs a search, search engines scour their index for highly relevant content and
then orders that content in the hopes of solving the searcher's query. This ordering of search results
by relevance is known as ranking. In general, you can assume that the higher a website is ranked,
the more relevant the search engine believes that site is to the query.

It’s possible to block search engine crawlers from part or all of your site, or instruct search engines to
avoid storing certain pages in their index. While there can be reasons for doing this, if you want your
content found by searchers, you have to first make sure it’s accessible to crawlers and is indexable.
Otherwise, it’s as good as invisible.

By the end of this chapter, you’ll have the context you need to work with the search engine, rather
than against it!

5.8 E-Mail: Concept

Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged
between two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may
contain text, files, images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or
group of individuals.

The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971. Tomlinson sent the e-mail to himself as a test e-
mail message, containing the text "something like QWERTYUIOP." However, despite sending the e-
mail to himself, the e-mail message was still transmitted through ARPANET.

E-mail address breakdown

support@[Link]
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

 The first portion of all e-mail addresses, the part before the @ symbol, contains
the alias, user, group, or department of a company. In our above example, support is the
Technical Support department at Computer Hope.
 Next, the @ (at sign) is a divider in the e-mail address; it's required for all SMTP e-mail
addresses since the first message was sent by Ray Tomlinson.
 Finally, [Link] is the domain name to which the user belongs.

How to send and receive e-mail

E-mail program
To send and receive e-mail messages, you can use an e-mail program, also known as an e-mail
client, such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird. When using an e-mail client, you must have
a server that stores and delivers your messages, hosted by your ISP or in some cases, another
company. An e-mail client needs to connect to a server to download new e-mail, whereas e-mail
stored online is always available, from any of your devices connected to the Internet. For more
information about cloud e-mail service, see the difference between webmail and an e-mail client,
below.
Advantages of e-mail
There are many advantages of e-mail and the usage of e-mail versus postal mail. Some of the main
advantages are listed below.
 Free delivery - Sending an e-mail is virtually free, outside the cost of Internet service. There is
no need to buy a postage stamp to send a letter.
 Global delivery - E-mail can be sent to nearly anywhere around the world, to any country.
 Instant delivery - An e-mail can be instantly sent and received by the recipient over the
Internet.
 File attachment - An e-mail can include one or more file attachments, allowing a person to
send documents, pictures, or other files with an e-mail.
 Long-term storage - E-mails are stored electronically, which allows for storage and archival
over long periods of time.
 Environmentally friendly - Sending an e-mail does not require paper (paperless), cardboard,
or packing tape, conserving paper resources.

What's the difference between webmail and an e-mail client?

Both webmail and an e-mail client perform the same function: they allow the user to send and receive
e-mail. However, an e-mail client requires the user to install software directly onto their computer; if
the software is not installed, e-mail may not be accessed. Also, many e-mail clients cost money, but
are generally more secure. Webmail, on the other hand, is a free service, hosted in the cloud. The
cloud service will automatically synchronize your e-mail to all your devices, including your desktop
computer, tablet, or Smartphone.

5.9 Meaning, Scope & Benefits of Computer Network

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Network is an anthology of computers associated to each other. It allows the computers to

communicate with each other and share resources which include information, software and peripheral
devices such as printers, scanners

Now days, computers are used in a wider range. All the organizations are using multiple computers
within their departments to perform their day to day work. It is necessary to connect them which form
a network. The networks are classified into different types according to the network size. When
computers communicate with each other, they follow certain specific formats and rules. This formats
and rules are explained by the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. This OSI model is
conceptual and has seven layers and each layer is having its own functions.

As network selection criterion forms the basis of a network, since it helps to select a secured and
efficient network. The criterion explains network performance improvement techniques and necessity
of reliable network. Various standards organizations are used for network communication to maintain
consistency.

Introduction to computer Networks

Computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers and peripherals such as printers
and faxes. Computer network allows the user to share and transfer information using cables or
modems within a network.

Need for Computer Networks

Computer network allows the user to share data with other users in a network, for example, a
company having a number of computers which are connected in a network. Computer network will
enable the users to share files and folders and get synchronized with other users.

Computer network also allows the user to share resources such as printers and faxes. Printer can be
installed on one computer and can be accessed by other users in a network. By this the need of
installing printers on individual computers is avoided and it results in cost-effectiveness. Computer
network also allows the user to communicate with each other using instant messaging tools to share
ideas, files or solve queries.

The user can also setup a central system wherein common files and folders which are frequently
used by all the users can be stored. All the users within the network can easily access those files.
Instead of taking backups from individual computer, the user can take data backup from the central
system. This helps in reducing the time of taking backup.

If an organization you have several computers but just one phone line, a network makes it easier to
use the Internet. Numerous computers can share one modem to use the equivalent Internet
connection. Otherwise, you car even install a dedicated high-speed Internet connection such as a
cable modem for your network.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

It is possible to add new systems or servers to an existing network easily. Thus the computer network
provides scalability. It is also reliable to use a network as it uses mirroring and redundancy

5.10. Network Types – LAN, WAN, MAN

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small places such as
school, hospital, apartment etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the data
which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from 100 to
100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that allows local area
network to work on a wireless connection.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In
Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other through
telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.
2. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is larger than
LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet connection is an
example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections such as 3G, 4G etc.

Advantages of WAN:
Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need to maintain
the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a data centre, from
where we can access the data through WAN.

Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share online that way
the data is secure and minimises the risk of unauthorized access.

Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need, a large
organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster and efficiently.

Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection thus we can
connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not possible is other type of
computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:
Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is possibility that
we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system and become threat to our privacy
and may lead to data loss.
Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really difficult to pin
point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the problem.

Interconnection of Networks:
We have read LAN, MAN and WAN above, we also talked about internet. You can say that an
internet is a combination of LAN, MAN and WAN.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

UNIT-4
4.1 MS Word
Microsoft Word is a widely used commercial word processor designed by Microsoft. It is a paid
software that helps in preparing, editing, storing and printing documents quickly and with accuracy.
MS Word is a part of the Microsoft Office suite, a productivity software and can also be purchased as
a stand-alone product. It was initially launched in 1983 and has been revised numerous times since
then. MS Word is available on both Windows and Macintosh operating systems.
A word processor lets a user change words or phrases, move whole sections of text from one place
to another, store blocks of text, align margins. Use of MS Word has changed the look and feel of
official correspondence, reports, and proposals etc. to a great extent. The powerful features of Word
supports to creation of graphic based multi-column publications such as Fliers, Newsletters and
Internet web pages.
MS Word offers several features to ease document creation and editing including:
 WYSIWYG (what-you-see-is-what-you-get) display: It ensures that everything you see on
screen will appear the same way when printed or moved to another format or program.
 Proof Reading – Spelling and Grammar check: Word comes with a built-in dictionary for
spell checking; misspelled words are marked with a red underline.
 Text-level features such as bold, underline, italic and strike-through
 Page-level features such as indentation, paragraphing and justification
 Word Wrapping
 Selecting a block of Text
 Copy, Move, Paste and Cut Text
 Search And Replace Text
 Margin and Colum Settings
 Character Formatting and Styling
 External support: Word is compatible with many other programs, the most common being the
other members of the Office suite
The default file format was .doc prior to the MS Word 2007 version; in 2007, .docx became the
default file format.

4.2 MS-Excel
Microsoft Excel is a software program developed by Microsoft Corp. that allows users to organize,
format and calculate data with formulas using a spread sheet system. This software is a part of the
Microsoft office suite and is compatible with other applications of the office suite.
Excel has the same basic features as every other spread sheet, and uses a collection of cells
arranged into rows and columns to organize data. They also display data as charts, histograms and
line graphs. An Excel document is called a Workbook. A workbook always has at least one
Worksheet. Worksheets are the grid where a user can store and calculate data. A user can have
many worksheets stored inside a workbook, each with a unique worksheet name.
Excel is used widely in most finance-related activity. The ability to create new spread sheets where
users can define custom formulas to calculate anything from a simple quarterly forecast to a full
corporate annual report makes Excel highly appealing.
Excel is a useful tool for scientific and statistical analysis with large data sets. Excel’s statistical
formulas and graphing can help researches perform variance analysis, chi-square testing, and chart
complex data.
Applications of MS Excel:
 Preparation of Annual Budgets
 Preparation of Annual Reports
 Preparation of Income Statement
 Accounts Payable/Receivable
 Payrolls and Invoice
 Inventory Control
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

4.3 MS-PowerPoint
PowerPoint is a presentation program developed by Microsoft Corp. This software allows users to
create anything from basic slide shows to complex presentations.
PowerPoint is a tool used to communicate your ideas effectively through visual aids that look
professionally designed and yet are easy to make.
PowerPoint is often used to create business presentations, but can also be used for educational or
informational purposes. The presentations are comprised of slides, which may contain text, images,
and other media, such as audio clips and movies. Sound effects and animated transitions can also be
included to add extra appeal to the presentation. The design features of PowerPoint support
customization of the appearance and format of the slides. PowerPoint comes with a set of preloaded
themes or templates to choose that range from simple colour changes to complete format layouts.
Apart from these it also includes all basic text editing and styling options.
The default file format was .ppt prior to the Microsoft PowerPoint 2007 version; in 2007, .pptx became
the default file format. Also extensions .pps (before Microsoft PowerPoint 2007) and .ppsx (Microsoft
PowerPoint 2007 onwards) can be used for opening presentations in Slide Show view instead of in
Normal view.

4.4 Importance of office to a modern business

(a) Office is regarded as the locus of business policy. It is a place where policy is formed and from
where it is executed.
(b) Office acts as an overseer of office machine, furniture and equipments.
(c) It serves as a centre for personnel function.
(d) Office acts an intermediary with customers and outside organization with regard to preparation of
bills, collection of bills, making payments and attending corresponds.
(e) It acts as an information hub of the company because all types of information’s are found in office.

Modern office is regarded as the store house of information. The importance of office to modern
business can be studied from the following points :

1. Office acts an information centre, rather a data bank for a business unit. It collects information from
both internal and external source, records it, arranges and analyses it and provides it to management
at the time of necessity. So all sorts of information whether past or present are available in office.
2. Office acts as on intermediary agency as it connects different departments with outsiders. It
establishes linkage of the business unit with its suppliers, customers, Government and the general
public as a whole.
3. It provides a machinery for co-ordination. It provides competent clerical services to all in the
business who needs it. Different departments like production, distribution and finance are interlinked
and this linkage is made possible through the help of office.
4. Office as a control centre of the organization since office assists management m taking decision
and implementing them. It is a place where policy decisions originates and where it is executed.
5. It is regarded as a channel through which written communication moves from top to bottom and
bottom to top.
6. It is regarded as the clearing house of the business unit because it is the place through which all
information pass, given a proper treatment and then supplied to the necessary points where it is
demanded.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

UNIT-2 Remaining Part

Digital Number System
A digital system can understand positional number system only where there are a few symbols
called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in
the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available
in the number system).
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represents units, tens, hundreds, thousands and
so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234
consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in
the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1×1000) + (2×100) + (3×10) + (4×l)
(1×103) + (2×102) + (3×101) + (4×l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 1
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number
systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.N. Number System & Description

1 Binary Number System

Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1

2 Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7

3 Hexa Decimal Number System

Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

 Also called base 2 number system

 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example: 2 0
 Last position in a binary number represents an x power of the base (2). Example: 2 x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System
Characteristics
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example: 8 0
 Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example: 8 x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example

Octal Number − 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 × 84) + (2 × 83) + (5 × 82) + (7 × 81) + (0 × 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Step 3 125708 549610

Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system.
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 16 0.
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example −

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (F × 162) + (D × 161) + (E × 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (15 × 162) + (13 × 161) + (14 ×
160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536 + 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Binary Arithmetic
Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital system.
Binary Addition
It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given column
and a carry of 1 over to the next column.

Example − Addition

Binary Subtraction
Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary subtraction.
There are four rules of binary subtraction.

Example − Subtraction

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code

In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to express
each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can represent sixteen
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of these are used (0000 to 1001). The
remaining six code combinations i.e. 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.

Advantages of BCD Codes

 It is very similar to decimal system.

 We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.

Disadvantages of BCD Codes

 The addition and subtraction of BCD have different rules.

 The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.
 BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So BCD is less
efficient than binary.

Number System Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following −

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method − Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method − Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method − Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method − Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System
Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new
base number.
 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step
3.
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example −

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the
first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the Most
Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number − 2910 = Binary Number − 111012.
Other Base System to Decimal System
Steps
 Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).
 Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.
 Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example

Binary Number − 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Step 1 111012 ((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number − 111012 = Decimal Number − 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System
Steps
 Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
 Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number − 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 − Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 × 81) + (5 × 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number − 258 = Decimal Number − 2110

Step 2 − Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number − 2110 = Binary Number − 101012

Octal Number − 258 = Binary Number − 101012
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
 Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number − 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 5 8

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number − 101012 = Octal Number − 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Steps
 Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Octal Number − 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number − 258 = Binary Number − 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
 Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

Binary Number − 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number − 101012 = Hexadecimal Number − 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Steps
 Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

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Aditya Kumar, Associate Professor, uttam Institute of Management Studies, Runkata, Agra

Example

Hexadecimal Number − 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number − 1516 = Binary Number − 101012

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