Job performance

Outcome 2

Motivation Job Performance Teamwork

Individual differences Factors affecting team

Process theories of Methods of improving
Content theories which affect job Theories cohesion and
motivation: job performance
performance performance:

Belbin’s team role

Herzberg; equity theory; ability, job design, consultation;
theory;

stages of group
Maslow; goal theory; perception, empowerment, development — participation;
Tuckman.

Alderfer. expectancy theory learning and attitude autonomy, Communication

work organisation,
formation and change. ; clarity of roles;
selection,

training, team size;

financial and non-

team objectives.
financial rewards.
 ability,

perception,
Individual differences which
affect job performance
learning

Job Performance
attitude formation and
change.

job design,

empowerment,

autonomy,

Methods of improving job

work organisation
performance

selection,

training,

financial and non-financial

rewards.
John P. Campbell
• Job performance is an individual-level variable, or
something a single person does.

• This concept differentiates performance from outcomes.

• It is something done by the employee.

• Outcomes are the result of an individual's performance,

but they are also the result of other influences.
 Outcomes Vs Individual controlled action
• Revenue can be generated or not, depending on the behavior of employees.

• When the employee performs this sales job well, he is able to move more
merchandise. However, certain factors other than employees' behavior influence
revenue generated.

• Ex: Sales might slump due to economic conditions, changes in customer

preferences, production bottlenecks, etc. In these conditions, employee
performance can be adequate, yet sales can still be low.

• Goal relevant.

• Performance must be directed toward organizational goals that are relevant to the
job or role.

• Therefore, performance does not include activities where effort is expended

toward achieving peripheral goals.
Individual differences which affect job
performance include
Ability
• Engineer develop the Mechanical design for a machine and technician will built the machine

Perception
• How oneself views job

Learning
• Concern flying hours for a aircraft pilot.

Attitude formation and change.

• Marketing Director positioning a product in the market.
Methods of improving job performance could
be;
• Job design

• Empowerment

• Autonomy

• Work organization

• Selection, Training & Development

• Financial and non-financial rewards

Job design

Job design includes designing jobs that create both a

challenging and interesting task for the employee and
is effective and efficient for getting the job done.
Four approaches to job design are:

[Link] Simplification Job Rotation

Job design

Job Enlargement Job Enrichment

(01) Job Simplification
• Simplifies by breaking it down into small sub-parts. Hence, workers will perform
the same task over and over again.

Pros Cons
• Enables the worker to gain proficiency and fitness • Due to the repetitive job, workers feel
in doing the repetitive task. boredom.
• increases worker’s productivity, on the one hand, • They tend to remain absent frequently.
and, in turn, profits, on the other. • Boredom also leads to mistakes and
• The training costs of so simplified jobs are virtually accidents.
nil because very low level of skill is required to do • On the whole, the quality and quantity of
these simplified jobs. output gets adversely affected.
 (02) Job Rotation

• Job rotation implies the moving of employees from job to job without any change
in the job. In case of job rotation, an employee performs different jobs, but of
the same nature.

Pros Cons
• It removes boredom. • Frequent shifting of employees across the jobs causes
• It broadens employee’s knowledge and interruption in the job routine.
skill. • Employees may feel alienated when they are rotated from job
• Employees become competent in several to job.
jobs rather than only one. • The employees who look for more challenging assignments may
still feel frustrated.
 (03) Job Enlargement
• This is a horizontal expansion in a job. Job enlargement involves adding more tusks
to a job. By adding more tasks to job, job enlargement expands job scope and gives
variety of tasks to the job holder.

Pros Cons

• Job enlargement reduces boredom and monotony by providing the • the job could become boring to
employee after a time especially
employee more variety of tasks in the job. when the job was already
• Thus, it helps increase interest in work and efficiency. monotonous.

• A recent study found that by expanding the scope of job, workers found
benefits such as more satisfaction, enhanced customer service, and less
errors.
(04) Job Enrichment
• Job enrichment involves adding motivating factors to job. Thus, job enrichment is a vertical
expansion of a job by adding more responsibility and freedom to do it.

• Fredrick Herzberg [Link] describe job enrichment as that type of improvement in the context of
the job which may give a worker: more of a challenge, a complete task, responsibility, opportunity
for growth and chance to contribute their ideas
 Principles of Job Enrichment

Change aimed at enriching jobs Motivation generated by the

changes
1. Removing some controls while retaining accountability Responsibility and personal achievement

2. Increasing the accountability of individuals for own work Responsibility and recognition

3. Giving a person complete a natural unit of work (Division/area). Responsibility, achievement and recognition

4. Granting additional authority to an employee in his activity. Give Responsibility, achievement and recognition.
more job freedom.
5. Making periodic reports directly available to the worker himself Internal recognition
rather than to his superior
6. Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled. Growth and learning

7. Assigning individuals specific or specified tasks enabling them to be- Responsibility, growth and advancement
come experts.
Empowerment
• To invest people with authority

• Sharing varying degrees of power with lower-level employees to better serve the customer

• Three Levels of Employee empowerment

Enabling the employees to make bigger decisions without
having refer to a senior.

Involving the employees to improve the ways things are

done

Encouraging employees to Play a more effective role in

their work.
Benefits and Complications

Benefits Complications

• Improved employer satisfaction. • Giving up control can be threatening

to some managers.
• By being shared, organizational
• Managers may not want to share
power can grow. power with someone they look down
• Employees to perform better. upon.
• Managers fear losing their own place
• Increases trust in the organization.
and special privileges in the system.
 Process of Employee Empowerment

Changing Determining
Identifying
Behavior of Impact of Establishing Work
Reasons for
Senior Employee Teams
Empowerment
Management Decisions

Communicating Providing Selecting the Sharing

Expectations Training Right Employees Information
 Pros of Employee Empowerment
• It leads to greater job satisfaction, motivation, increased productivity and reduces
the costs.

• It also leads to creativity and innovation since the employees have the authority
to act on their own.

• There is increased efficiency in employees because of increased ownership in

their work.

• Lesser need of supervision and delegation.

• Employees when empowered become more entrepreneurial and start taking

more risks.

• Greater the risk, greater are the chances to succeed.

• Focus on quality from the level of manufacturing till actual delivery and service of
goods.
 Cons of Employee Empowerment
• Egotism / arrogance: Worker arrogance can create a big trouble for the
supervisors and the managers. There can be problems in delegating. Employees
avoid reporting about their work and feedback can be taken negatively.

• Risk: Creativity and innovation demands a greater risk bearing capacity and there
are equal chances of success and failure. Workers often lack the expertise to
execute are enterprise, which can cost big.

• Industrial Democracy: Labor unions and workers are empowered and they may
misuse the same. Strikes and lock outs become more frequent. Also, labor unions
gain insights into management and their functioning and they leak the same.

• Security: Since information comes and is shared by all, there are apprehensions
about leakage of critical data
Autonomy
• Autonomy is the degree to which a job provides an employee with the discretion and
independence to schedule their work and determine how it is to be done.

• Higher levels of autonomy on the job have been shown to increase job satisfaction, and
in some cases, motivation to perform the job.

• In traditional organizations, only employees at higher levels had autonomy.

• However, new organizational structures, such as flatter organizations, have resulted in

increased autonomy at lower levels.

• Additionally, many companies now make use of autonomous work teams.

 Types of Autonomy at Workplaces
Employee autonomy
• Increased autonomy should make employees feel a greater responsibility for the outcomes of their work, and
therefore have increased work motivation. However, too much autonomy can lead to employee dissatisfaction.
Each individual has a different level of need for autonomy in their job.

Managerial autonomy
• Managers tend to have increased autonomy in organizations that are more decentralized. In such organizations,
managers have more freedom to make decisions regarding the work of employees and even personnel decisions.
However, If managers make poor decisions, this may be harmful to employees and the organization as a whole

Team autonomy
• Self-managed work teams are those in which a supervisor gives little direction to the team, and the team
members manage themselves. The success of such teams depends greatly on the team members, including their
professional capabilities and their ability to work together. However, as with individuals, too much autonomy in a
team can reduce productivity.

Autonomy and the organization

• The autonomy of employees and managers is often dictated by an organization's structure and culture; traditional,
bureaucratic organizations often have little autonomy. However, increased autonomy in the organization also may
create disparity among units through different work practices and rules.
 Employee autonomy
• Increased autonomy should make employees feel a greater responsibility for the outcomes of
their work, and therefore have increased work motivation.

• Research indicates that when employees have greater levels of autonomy, their personality
traits specifically conscientiousness/ carefulness and extroversion/ sociability have a stronger
impact on job performance.

• Employees able to use their personal attributes to contribute to job performance. However,
too much autonomy can lead to employee dissatisfaction. Each individual has a different level
of need for autonomy in their job.

• Some workers prefer more direction from a manager and feel uncomfortable with autonomy;
they may not want to exert effort or take the responsibility of having their name solely
associated with a task, project, or product.
 Employee autonomy Cont.
• Additionally, if employees are not well-equipped—either in training or in personality—to exercise
autonomy, it may result in workplace tension and poor performance.

• Finally, when given autonomy, workers may believe that they have authority somewhat equal to
that of their direct supervisor. This may cause them to resent the extra responsibility or feel that
their pay should be increased.

• A related concern is that managers may feel marginalized when employee autonomy increases,
particularly when there is a change to a traditional work environment.

• Managers may feel that by giving employees autonomy, they no longer contribute as much to the
organization or that their jobs may be at stake.
 Managerial autonomy
• Managers tend to have increased autonomy in organizations that are more decentralized. In such
organizations, managers have more freedom to make decisions regarding the work of employees
and even personnel decisions.

• As with employee autonomy, this freedom can result in feelings of motivation and satisfaction for
the manager, who may be in a better position to reward and motivate employees.

• However, as with employee autonomy, managers who have autonomy may not be equipped to
handle it. If managers make poor decisions, this may be harmful to employees and the
organization as a whole.

• Using the example of autonomy in deciding pay raises, a manager may give merit pay increases
that are significantly higher than those in other work units, which may cause problems across the
organization.
 Team autonomy
• In recent years, many organizations have made use of teams in the workplace, many of which operate autonomously.

• Self-managed work teams are those in which a supervisor gives little direction to the team, and the team members
manage themselves. The success of such teams depends greatly on the team members, including their professional
capabilities and their ability to work together.

• Oftentimes, such autonomous teams can greatly enhance an organization's ability to be creative, flexible, and
innovative.

• However, as with individuals, too much autonomy in a team can reduce productivity. When individuals work too
independently, their lack of communication and monitoring of one another may result in poor team performance.

• Additionally, without supervision the team may pursue goals that are different from those of the organization. Thus,
periodic meetings and supervision from a manager may be necessary to avoid problems associated with too much
autonomy.
 Autonomy and the organization
• The autonomy of employees and managers is often dictated by an organization's structure and culture;
traditional, bureaucratic organizations often have little autonomy.

• But newer, more organic structures rely on autonomy, empowerment, and participation to succeed.

• Therefore, autonomy may improve workplace functions through the ideas and suggestions of
employees, and foster relationships with a greater degree of trust between management and
employees.
• However, increased autonomy in the organization also may create disparity among units through
different work practices and rules. In the worst case, increased autonomy may allow some employees
to engage in unethical behavior.

• Thus, a certain amount of oversight is necessary in organizations to prevent wrongdoing that may go
unnoticed when there are high levels of autonomy.
In conclusion, autonomy generally is a positive attribute for
employees, managers, teams, and organizations as a whole.

Employees typically desire autonomy, and its introduction

can increase motivation and satisfaction.

However, because too much autonomy can have

organizational drawbacks, care should be taken when
increasing it.
 Recruitment & Selection
• Recruiting staff is a very costly exercise.

• It is also an essential part of any business and it pays to do it properly.

• When organizations choose the right people for the job, train them well and treat them
appropriately, these people not only produce good results but also tend to stay with the organization
longer.

• In such circumstances, the organization's initial and ongoing investment in them is well rewarded.

• An organization may have all of the latest technology and the best physical resources, but if it does
not have the right people it will struggle to achieve the results it requires.

• This is true across the whole spectrum of business activity. e.g. schools, hospitals, legal practices,
restaurants, airlines ant etc.

• Poor choices at the recruitment stage can prove expensive.

• The company needs to be sure of a candidate's technical competence.

Cummins Inc. is an American Fortune 500 corporation
that designs, manufactures, and distributes engines,
filtration, and power generation products.
Headquarters: Columbus, Indiana, United States
Founded: 1919
 Cummins was recently first to market with a complete range of engines

that met new stringent environmental legislation.

 Their technical solution to meeting this legislation was completely

different to the competitor's approach.

 Had it turned out to be ineffective or not to be approved by government

authorities, it could have led to the downfall of the company.

 The responsibility of making the correct decision was shared by relatively

few individuals.
 In addition to technical competence and appropriate experience, an
organization needs to be sure that it can rely on candidates' goodwill,
loyalty and commitment towards the organization and its aims.

 According to the Chief Executive Officer of the Cummins Group, 'one of

the most crucial decisions that a leader will make is the choice of those
who will support them.’
Need of Recruitment
 Planned recruitment
 Anticipated recruitment
 Unexpected recruitment

• Methods of improving job performance could be “Selection”

• Selection  Select right door to process

• Employers assess applicants characteristics in an attempt to

determine the ‘fit’ between the job and applicant characteristics.
 Selection Process

Review
Job Analysis Advertising Interviews/
Applications
(JD and JS) the job Tests
and Shortlist

Negotiate Identify the

Employee Sell the job suitable
Contract candidates
 Job Analysis
• The procedure for determining the
duties and skill requirements of a job
and the kind of person who should be
hired for it.

• The process of job analysis is of two

types:

• Job Description (JD)

• Job Specification (JS) /

Person Specification (PS)

Job Requirement Human Requirement

Advertising the job
• Job advertisements form an important part of the recruitment process.

Internal Communication
• (intranet, send e-mails or post on company's social network
pages and blogs)
Career/ Company Websites and Job Boards Social
• (CareerBuilder, Monster, HotJobs, topjobs and etc.)

Networks
• (Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn)

Newspapers
Recruitment
• Recruitment is a continuous process whereby the firm attempts to develop a pool
of qualified applicants for the future human resources needs even though specific
vacancies do not exist.

Sources of Recruitment
Internal Recruitment External Recruitment
Promotion Management Consultant
Departmental Exam Employment Agencies
Transfer Campus Recruitment
Retirement News Paper Advt
Internal Advertisement Internal Advt
Employee Recommendation Walk In
Objectives of training and development

• Improving quality of work force

• Enhance employee growth

• Prevents obsolescence

• Assisting new comer

• Bridging the gap between planning and implementation

• Health and safety measures

 Top companies invest in training programs because they know that
investment pays off in individual and organizational benefits.

Organization

• Profit growth

• Reduced employee turnover

• Deeper talent succession pipelines

Individual

• Increased employee motivation

• Improved engagement

• Improved speed to competency

 On-the-job experience
Committees
• Committees made up of staff from different areas of your organization will enhance learning by allowing members
to see issues from different perspectives

Conferences and forums

• Employees can attend conferences that focus on topics of relevance to their position and the organization

Critical incident notes

• Day-to-day activities are always a source of learning opportunities

Field trips
• If your organization has staff at more than one site, provide employees with an opportunity to visit the other sites

Job aids
• Tools can be given to employees to help them perform their jobs better

Job expanding
• Once the employee trained give more challengers
 On-the-job experience
Job rotation
• On a temporary basis, employees can be given the opportunity to work in a different area of the organization

Job shadowing
• If an employee wants to learn what someone else in your organization does, your employee can follow that person and
observe him or her at work

Learning alerts
• Newspaper articles, government announcements and reports can be used as learning alerts

Peer-assisted learning
• Two employees agree to help each other learn different tasks. Both employees should have an area of expertise that the
co-worker can benefit from

'Stretch' assignments
• These assignments give the employee an opportunity to stretch past his or her current abilities

Special projects
• Give an employee an opportunity to work on a project that is normally outside his or her job duties.
On-the-job experience
• Committees
• Committees are part of every-day activity in any organization. They can also be effective
learning tools, with the right focus
• Committees made up of staff from different areas of your organization will enhance learning
by allowing members to see issues from different perspectives
• Set aside part of the committee's work time to discuss issues or trends that may impact on
the organization in the future

• Conferences and forums

• Employees can attend conferences that focus on topics of relevance to their position and the
organization
• Upon their return, have the employee make a presentation to other staff as a way of
enhancing the individual's learning experience and as a way of enhancing the organization.
(Some conferences and forums may be considered off-the-job learning)
• Critical incident notes
• Day-to-day activities are always a source of learning opportunities
• Select the best of these opportunities and write up critical incident notes for staff to learn
from. Maybe a client complaint was handled effectively. Write a brief summary of the
incident and identify the employee's actions that led to a successful resolution
• Share the notes with the employee involved and with others as appropriate. If the
situation was not handled well, again write a brief description of the situation identifying
areas for improvement
• Discuss the critical incident notes with the employee and identify the areas for the
employee to improve upon and how you will assist the employee in doing this
• Field trips
• If your organization has staff at more than one site, provide employees with an
opportunity to visit the other sites
• This helps your employees gain a better understanding of the full range of programs and
clients that your organization serves
• Field trips to other organizations serving a similar clientele or with similar positions can
also provide a valuable learning experience
• Give staff going on field trips a list of questions to answer or a list of things to look for
• Follow up the field trip by having staff explain what they have learned and how they can
apply that learning to your organization. (Fieldtrips can also be an off-the-job activity)
Job aids
Tools can be given to employees to help them perform their jobs better. These tools
include: manuals, checklists, phone lists, procedural guidelines, decision guidelines and so
forth
Job aids are very useful for new employees, employees taking on new responsibilities and
for activities that happen infrequently

Job expanding
Once an employee has mastered the requirements of his or her job and is performing
satisfactorily, s/he may want greater challenges. Consider assigning new additional duties
to the employee
Which duties to assign should be decided by the employee and her or his manager
Organizations with flat organizational structure are starting to give some managerial tasks
to experienced staff as a way of keeping those staff challenged

Job rotation
On a temporary basis, employees can be given the opportunity to work in a different area
of the organization
The employee keeps his or her existing job but fills in for or exchanges responsibilities with
another employee
Job shadowing
If an employee wants to learn what someone else in your organization does, your employee can follow
that person and observe him or her at work
Usually the person doing the shadowing does not help with the work that is being done

Learning alerts
Newspaper articles, government announcements and reports can be used as learning alerts
Prepare a brief covering page which could include a short summary and one or two key questions for
your employees to consider. Then circulate the item
Include the item on the agenda of your next staff meeting for a brief discussion

Peer-assisted learning
Two employees agree to help each other learn different tasks. Both employees should have an area of
expertise that the co-worker can benefit from
The employees take turns helping their co-worker master the knowledge or skill that they have to share
'Stretch' assignments
These assignments give the employee an opportunity to stretch past his or her current
abilities. For example, a stretch assignment could require an employee to chair a meeting
if the person has never done this before
To ensure that chairing the meeting is a good learning experience, the manager should
take time after the meeting to discuss with the employee what went well and what could
have been improved

Special projects
Give an employee an opportunity to work on a project that is normally outside his or her
job duties. For example, someone who has expressed an interest in events planning could
be given the opportunity to work as part of a special events team
Relationships and feedback
Coaching
Coaching refers to a pre-arranged agreement between an experienced manager
and his or her employee. The role of the coach is to demonstrate skills and to give
the employee guidance, feedback, and reassurance while s/he practices the new skill
Mentoring
Mentoring is similar to coaching. Mentoring occurs when a senior, experienced
manager provides guidance and advice to a junior employee
The two people involved have usually developed a working relationship based on
shared interest and values
Networking
Some professional specialties have informal networks designed to meet the
professional development need of the members. Members meet to discuss current
issues and to share information and resources
Performance appraisal
Performance appraisals are partly evaluation and partly developmental. In
traditional performance appraisals the manager and employee evaluate the
employee's strengths and weaknesses. In a 360-degree performance appraisal,
feedback is gathered from supervisors, peers, staff, other colleagues and sometimes
clients. The results of an appraisal can be used to identify areas for further
development of the employee
Classroom training

Courses, seminars, workshops

These are formal training opportunities that can be offered to
employees either internally or externally. A trainer, facilitator and/or
subject matter expert can be brought into your organization to provide
the training session or an employee can be sent to one of these learning
opportunities during work time
 Off-the-job learning
Courses offered by colleges or universities
Many colleges and universities offer courses relevant to employees in the non-profit sector. Employees
may attend these classes on their own time or your organization may give them time off with pay to
attend. Employees are often compensated by the organization for the cost of the course
Professional associations
Professional associations, like networks, provide employees an opportunity to stay current in their
chosen field
Reading groups (also called learning circles or reading circles)
A group of staff meets to discuss books or articles relevant to the workplace/organization. Meetings
usually take place outside normal working hours, such as noon hour or right after work
Self study
Self-paced independent reading, e-learning courses and volunteer work all provide learning
opportunities. The employee engages in the learning activity by choice and at his or her desired pace of
learning
Information and course offered by the internet are called e-learning. A variety of learning opportunities
can be accessed this way. The choices range from formal training offered by colleges and universities, to
an informal walk-through of a given subject, to reading reports on a topic. E-learning can take place on or
off the job.
 Methods of improving job performance could be
“Incentives”
The term incentive means an inducement which rouses or
stimulates one to action in a desired direction.
An incentive has a motivational power; a large number of incentives the
modern organizations use to motivate their employees may be broadly
grouped into

(i) Financial incentives

(ii) Non-Financial incentives
 Financial rewards
• Financial rewards are the pay and benefits that workers receive in return for work, though others might
include praise from superiors and a sense of career progression.
 Bonus
A bonus is a supplemental payment as an incentive or reward for hard work, it is often connected directly to performance,
such as generating more sales or motivating a production line to meet or exceed a quota.
 Allowance
Allowance is money you get on a regular schedule. Strictly, speaking allowance means money you just get. It's different
from money that you earn by working. That money is called wages.
 Pensions
In general, a pension is an arrangement to provide people with an income when they are no longer earning a regular
income from employment.
 Wages and salaries
This wages are paid per hour worked and workers receive money at the end of the week. Then salaries are annual based
on year’s work and are paid at the end of each month.
 Non - Financial rewards Good
Job !

• Non financial rewards, in employment, a reward to a worker other than extra pay.
 Praise for a good work
To congratulate employee for work well done.

 Challenging work
It is a challenge that employees make to have the best performance at work.

 Career opportunity
Provide promotional development opportunities and training to improve performance.

 Recognition
Non-financial rewards may take the form of recognition, letter of appreciation or certificate
of commendation, souvenirs or medals.