Math 1012: Mathematics for Social Sciences

Chapter 2: Functions

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

July 12, 2021

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The number systems
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, . . . de-
noted by N
Any natural number is said to be even if and only if it is a multiple of
two otherwise it is odd
A natural number except 1 is said to be prime number if and only if
its possible factors are only 1 and itself.
A natural number except 1 is said to be composite number if and
only if it is not prime number.
The numbers 0 and 1 are neither prime nor composite. They are too
special because they represent nothingness (zero) and wholeness (one),
so the idea of having factors for 0 and 1 does not make sense. Without
a concept of factors, we cannot classify 0 or 1 as prime or composite.
Only whole numbers larger than 1 can be classified as prime or com-
posite.
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The number systems
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, . . . With
them we can count: our books, our friends, and our money.
If we adjoin their negatives and zero, we obtain the integers
. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
When we try to measure length or weight, the integers are inadequate.
They do not give sufficient precision. Thus, we consider quotients
(ratios) of integers, numbers such as: 12 , − 32 , 14 and 22
7
n
Numbers which can be written in the form m , where m and n are
integers with m 6= 0 , are called rational numbers.
Do the rational numbers serve to measure all lengths? No. It showed
√
that while 2 measures the hypotenuse of a right triangle with sides
of length 1, it cannot be written as a quotient of two [Link],
√ √ √ √
2 is an irrational (not rational) number. So are 3, 5, 3 7, π and
a lot of other numbers.
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The number systems

The set of real numbers denoted by R can be described as the union

of the set of rational and irrational numbers.
i.e R = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}.
Geometrically, The real numbers are labels of points along a horizontal
line. There they measure the distance to the right or left from a fixed
point called the origin and labeled 0. Each point on the number line
corresponds a unique real number and vice-versa.

The number system can be enlarged still more to the so-called complex
numbers. These are numbers of the form a + bi , where a and b are
√
real numbers and i = −1

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Arithmetic operations
Given two real numbers x and y , we may add or multiply them to obtain
two new real numbers x + y and x · y (also written simply as xy ). These
two operations obey the following important basic properties
The closure Properties
1. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
2. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.
The commutative Properties
3. For addition: a + b = b + a
4. For multiplication: ab = ba
The associative properties
5. For addition:a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
6. For multiplication: a(bc) = (ab)c
The distributive property
7. a(b + c) = ab + ac or (b + c)a = ba + ca
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· · · properties cont

Identities
8. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity,
represented by 0,which has the property that
a + 0 = 0 + a = a for all real numbers a.
9. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplica-
tive identity, represented by 1, which has the property that
a · 1 = 1 · a = a for all real numbers a.
Inverses
10. For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, repre-
sented by −a, which has the property that a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a.
11. For multiplication: Each real number a, except 0, has a unique multi-
plicative inverse,represented by a−1 or 1a , which has the property that
a(a−1 ) = 1 = (a−1 )a or a 1a = 1 = 1a a.

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Remark
1 Subtraction and division are defined by:
x − y = x + (−y ) and x ÷ y = x · y1 , where y 6= 0.
2 In the product ab, a and b are called factors, in the sum a + b, a and
b are called terms.
3 The set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition and multi-
plication.
i.e The sum of two irrational numbers is not always irrational. For
√ √ √ √
example, 2 + (− 2) = 0 the terms 2 and − 2 are irrationals and
the result 0 is a rational number.
Similarly, The product of two irrationals is not always irrational. For
√ √
example 2 2 = 2 the result 2 is a rational number

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The order relation on the set of real numbers

The real number system has an order relation denoted by ” > ” read
”greater than” and defined by: for a, b ∈ R, a > b if and only if a − b is a
positive real number. We agree that a > b then b < a the order relation
denoted by ” < ” read ”less than”
The following properties are true
Trichotomy: If a and b are numbers, exactly one of the following holds:
a > b, a = b, or b > a
Transitivity: for every a, b, c ∈ R, a > b ∧ b > c =⇒ a > c
Addition property:for every a, b, c ∈ R, a > b =⇒ a + c > b + c
Multiplicative property:for every a, b, c ∈ R, a > b ∧ c > 0 =⇒ ac > bc
for c < 0 =⇒ ac < bc

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Intervals

Let a and b be two real numbers such that a ≤ b, then the subsets of R
called intervals determined by the end points a and b are denoted and
defined as below:
(i) Open interval (a, b) is described by: (a, b) = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a < x < b}
(ii) Closed interval [a, b] is described by: [a, b] = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a ≤ x ≤ b}
(iii) Half-open (or half-closed) intervals (a, b] and [a, b) are described re-
spectively by:
(a, b] = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a < x ≤ b} and [a, b) = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a ≤ x < b}
using a and ∞ we have
(a, ∞) = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a < x}, [a, ∞) = {x : x ∈ R ∧ a ≤ x},
(−∞, a) = {x : x ∈ R ∧ x < a}, (−∞a] = {x : x ∈ R ∧ x ≤ a}
Finally (−∞, ∞) represents the whole real line or the whole set of real
numbers
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unions and intersection of intervals

Example
a) (1, 3) ∪ (2, 5] = (1, 5]
b) (1, 3) ∩ (2, 5] = (2, 3)
c) (1, 3) ∪ (4, 7] = (1, 3) ∪ (4, 7]
d) (1, 3) ∩ (4, 7] = ∅
e) ([4, 7) ∩ [5, 8]) ∪ (5, 10) = [5, 10)
f) ((3, 5) ∪ (4, 8]) ∩ [8, ∞) = {8}

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Solving equations and inequalities

Definition
If an open proposition involves equality ” = ” it is called an equation and
if it involves ” ≥ ” or > (” ≤ ” or <) it is called an inequality

Solving an equation means finding all possible values in its universe that
make the open statement true. The set of values that make the open
statement true is called the truth set (Solution set) of the open
statement.

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Solving equations and inequalities

Definition
If an open proposition involves equality ” = ” it is called an equation and
if it involves ” ≥ ” or > (” ≤ ” or <) it is called an inequality

Solving an equation means finding all possible values in its universe that
make the open statement true. The set of values that make the open
statement true is called the truth set (Solution set) of the open
statement.
Example
a) The truth set of the equation x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0 is {−4, 1}.
b) The truth set of the inequality 2x − 4 ≥ 4 is given by {x ∈ R|x ≥ 4}

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Equations
There are basic properties of equality ” = ” that are used in solving
equations. These are
1) ” = ” is reflexive, i.e. a = a for all numbers a.
2) ” = ” is symmetric, i.e. if a = b then b = a.
3) ” = ” is transitive, i.e. if a = b and b = c then a = c.
4) Addition property:if a = b and c = d then a + c = b + d.
5) Multiplicative property:if a = b and c = d then ac = bd.

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Equations
There are basic properties of equality ” = ” that are used in solving
equations. These are
1) ” = ” is reflexive, i.e. a = a for all numbers a.
2) ” = ” is symmetric, i.e. if a = b then b = a.
3) ” = ” is transitive, i.e. if a = b and b = c then a = c.
4) Addition property:if a = b and c = d then a + c = b + d.
5) Multiplicative property:if a = b and c = d then ac = bd.

Definition
Two equations are equivalent if and only if their solution sets are equal.

Example
1 x = a ⇐⇒ x + c = a + c
2 x + a = b + y ∧ b + y = z + d ⇐⇒ x + a = z + d
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Definition (Linear equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form
ax + b = 0 , where a and b are constants, and a 6= 0.

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Definition (Linear equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form
ax + b = 0 , where a and b are constants, and a 6= 0.

To find the truth set of a general linear equation

1 1
a 6= 0, ax + b = 0, ⇔ ax = −b ⇔ (ax) = (−b)
  a a
1 −b
⇔ a x=
a a
 −b
Therefore, the solution set is a

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Definition (Linear equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form
ax + b = 0 , where a and b are constants, and a 6= 0.

To find the truth set of a general linear equation

1 1
a 6= 0, ax + b = 0, ⇔ ax = −b ⇔ (ax) = (−b)
  a a
1 −b
⇔ a x=
a a
 −b
Therefore, the solution set is a

Remark
1. There are some equations which cannot be satisfied by any [Link]
solution set of such equation is empty set.
2. The solution set of some equation can be the set of all real numbers.
This is the case when the equation is satisfied by every real number.
3. Other than the above cases, A linear equation has one and only one
possible value for the variable.
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Example
1. Solve 6x + 9 = 12 (8 + 12x) : U = R

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Example
1. Solve 6x + 9 = 12 (8 + 12x) : U = R

Soln 2(6x + 9) = 8 + 12x ⇔ 12x + 18 = 8 + 12x

⇔ 18 − 8 = 12x − 12x ⇔ 10 = 0

Since 10 = 0 is false for every real number, the solution set is ∅

2. Solve 2(3 − 2x) + 5 = 6x + 4 : U=R

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Example
1. Solve 6x + 9 = 12 (8 + 12x) : U = R

Soln 2(6x + 9) = 8 + 12x ⇔ 12x + 18 = 8 + 12x

⇔ 18 − 8 = 12x − 12x ⇔ 10 = 0

Since 10 = 0 is false for every real number, the solution set is ∅

2. Solve 2(3 − 2x) + 5 = 6x + 4 : U=R

Soln 6 − 4x + 5 = 6x + 4 ⇔ 11 − 4x = 6x + 4
7
11 − 4 = 6x + 4x ⇔ 7 = 10x ⇔ x =
10
7

Therefore, the solution set is 10
3. Solve 3x + 12 = 3(x − 4) : U=R

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Example
1. Solve 6x + 9 = 12 (8 + 12x) : U = R

Soln 2(6x + 9) = 8 + 12x ⇔ 12x + 18 = 8 + 12x

⇔ 18 − 8 = 12x − 12x ⇔ 10 = 0

Since 10 = 0 is false for every real number, the solution set is ∅

2. Solve 2(3 − 2x) + 5 = 6x + 4 : U=R

Soln 6 − 4x + 5 = 6x + 4 ⇔ 11 − 4x = 6x + 4
7
11 − 4 = 6x + 4x ⇔ 7 = 10x ⇔ x =
10
7

Therefore, the solution set is 10
3. Solve 3x + 12 = 3(x − 4) : U=R

Soln 3x + 12 = 3(x + 4) ⇔ 3x + 12 = 3x + 12) ⇔ 3x − 3x = 12 − 12

⇔ 0=0 The solution set is R

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Exercise
1. The sum of two numbers is 25. One of the numbers exceeds the other
by 9. Find the numbers.

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Exercise
1. The sum of two numbers is 25. One of the numbers exceeds the other
by 9. Find the numbers.
Let the number be x . Then the other number= x + 9
Sum of two numbers, According to question, x + (x + 9) = 25
=⇒ 2x + 9 = 25
=⇒ 2x = 25 − 9(transposing 9 to the R.H.S changes to − 9)
=⇒ 2x = 16
=⇒ 2x/2 = 16/2(divideby 2onboththesides)
=⇒ x = 8

Therefore,x + 9 = 8 + 9 = 17
Therefore, the two numbers are 8 and 17.

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Exercise
2. The age of man after 15 years is 4 times the age of the man that was
15 years before. what is his present age?

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Exercise
2. The age of man after 15 years is 4 times the age of the man that was
15 years before. what is his present age?
Let the present age be x. then the age after 15 years = x + 15 and the
age before 15 years is = x − 15
According to the question x + 15 = 4(x − 15)
=⇒ x + 15 = 4x − 60
=⇒ 15 + 60 = 4x − x(transposing variables to the R.H.S changes to −
=⇒ 75 = 3x
=⇒ 3x/3 = 75/3(divideby 5onboththesides)
=⇒ x = 25

Therefore,the current age is 25

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Definition (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an expression that can be put in the form ax + b ≥ 0
or ax + b > 0 , where a and b are constants with a 6= 0. (The ≥ symbol
can be replaced with ≤ or <)

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Definition (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an expression that can be put in the form ax + b ≥ 0
or ax + b > 0 , where a and b are constants with a 6= 0. (The ≥ symbol
can be replaced with ≤ or <)

To find the truth set of a general linear inequality of the form ax + b ≥ 0,

Since a 6= 0 there are two cases to consider
Case 1: a > 0 , Then ax + b ≥ 0, ⇔ ax ≥ −b
−b
⇔ x≥
a

Therefore, the solution set is x|x ≥ −b = −b

 

a a ,∞
Case 2: a < 0 , Then ax + b ≥ 0, ⇔ ax ≥ −b
−b
⇔ x≤
a
−b
= −∞, −b
 
Therefore, the solution set is x|x ≤ a a

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Example
1 Solve the linear inequality 5x − 12 ≤ x + 8 : U = R

5x − 12 ≤ x + 8 ⇐⇒ 5x − x ≤ 12 + 8
⇐⇒ 4x ≤ 20
⇐⇒ x ≤ 5

The solution set is (−∞, 5] = {x|x ≤ 5}

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Example
1 Solve the linear inequality 5x − 12 ≤ x + 8 : U = R

5x − 12 ≤ x + 8 ⇐⇒ 5x − x ≤ 12 + 8
⇐⇒ 4x ≤ 20
⇐⇒ x ≤ 5

The solution set is (−∞, 5] = {x|x ≤ 5}

2 Solve the linear inequality 2x + 4 < 7x − 6 : U = R

2x + 4 < 7x − 6 ⇐⇒ 2x − 7x < −4 − 6
⇐⇒ −5x < −10
⇐⇒ x > 2

The solution set is [2, ∞) = {x|x > 2}

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example linear inequalities
Example
1 Solve the linear inequality 4x + 3 ≤ 5x + 4 < 2x + 13 : U=R

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example linear inequalities
Example
1 Solve the linear inequality 4x + 3 ≤ 5x + 4 < 2x + 13 : U=R
we now solve each inequality, then the intersection of the solution sets.

4x + 3 ≤ 5x + 4 ⇐⇒ 4x − 5x ≤ 4 − 3
⇐⇒ −x ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ x ≥ −1

The solution set of the first inequality is S1 = {x|x ≥ −1} and

5x + 4 < 2x + 13 ⇐⇒ 5x − 2x < 13 − 4
⇐⇒ 3x < 9 ⇐⇒ x < 3

The solution set of the second inequality is S2 = {x|x < 3}

Therefore the solution set of 4x + 3 ≤ 5x + 4 < 2x + 13 is
S1 ∩ S2 = {x|x ≥ −1 ∧ x < 3} = {x| − 1 ≤ x < 3} = [−1, 3)
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Remark
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given
domain (set). If so, a solution set should contain only those solutions that
belong to the specified domain.

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Remark
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given
domain (set). If so, a solution set should contain only those solutions that
belong to the specified domain.

Example
1) Find the solution set of x − 4(x + 1) ≥ −13 − (x − 2) in the set of
natural numbers,N.

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Remark
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given
domain (set). If so, a solution set should contain only those solutions that
belong to the specified domain.

Example
1) Find the solution set of x − 4(x + 1) ≥ −13 − (x − 2) in the set of
natural numbers,N.

x − 4(x + 1) ≥ −13 − (x − 2) ⇐⇒ x − 4x − 4 ≥ −13 − x + 2

⇐⇒ −3x − 4 ≥ −11 − x
⇐⇒ −2x ≥ −7
7
⇐⇒ x ≤
2
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in N is {1, 2, 3}.

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Example
2) Find the solution set of 7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 in set of whole numbers, W.

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Example
2) Find the solution set of 7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 in set of whole numbers, W.

7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 ⇐⇒ 7x − 3x ≤ 2 − 6
⇐⇒ 4x ≤ −4
⇐⇒ x ≤ −1

Thus, the solution of the given inequality in W is {} or ∅.

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Example
2) Find the solution set of 7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 in set of whole numbers, W.

7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 ⇐⇒ 7x − 3x ≤ 2 − 6
⇐⇒ 4x ≤ −4
⇐⇒ x ≤ −1

Thus, the solution of the given inequality in W is {} or ∅.

3) Find the solution set of the inequality 16 (x + 3) + 12 x − 3
2 ≤ 32 (x + 1)
in Q. multiplying by 6
 
1 1 3 3
6 (x + 3) + x − ≤ (x + 1) ⇐⇒ x + 3 + 3x − 9 ≤ 9(x + 1)
6 2 2 2
⇐⇒ 4x − 6 ≤ 9x + 9
⇐⇒ 4x − 9x ≤ 9 + 6 ⇐⇒ x ≥ −3

The solution set is {x ∈ Q|x ≥ −3}

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Quadratic Equations

Definition
An equation which is reducible to the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and
c are fixed numbers such that a 6= 0 is called a quadratic equation.
The solutions of quadratic equations are values of the variable that make
the equation a true statement. The solutions of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are also
called the roots of the polynomial equation.

To solve quadratic equations we have the following methods

1 Factorization Method
2 Completing the square method
3 Quadratic formula

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Factorization method

Remark
1 Difference of two squares x 2 − a2 = (x − a)(x + a)
2 Trinomials with integral coefficients
ax 2 + bx + c = (x + p)(x + q) where p + q = b and pq = c
3 The Zero-Product Rule: If a · b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0
√
4 The Square Root Theorem: If x 2 = d , then x = ± d

In factorization method we follow the steps:-

1 we can change to standard form and solve
2 When there is no first-degree term or if it is in the form of a squared
quantity equal to a number, we apply the Square Root Theorem.

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R
2 2
3x + 15x + 12 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(x + 5x + 4) = 0
⇐⇒ 3(x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = −4
The solution set is {−1, −4}

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R
2 2
3x + 15x + 12 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(x + 5x + 4) = 0
⇐⇒ 3(x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = −4
The solution set is {−1, −4}
2) Solve 5x 2 − 11 = 9; U=R

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R
2 2
3x + 15x + 12 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(x + 5x + 4) = 0
⇐⇒ 3(x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = −4
The solution set is {−1, −4}
2) Solve 5x 2 − 11 = 9; U=R
2
5x − 11 = 9 ⇐⇒ 5x = 202
√
⇐⇒ x 2 = 4 ⇐⇒ x = ± 4
⇐⇒ x = −2 or x = 2
The solution set is {−2, 2}

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R
2 2
3x + 15x + 12 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(x + 5x + 4) = 0
⇐⇒ 3(x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = −4
The solution set is {−1, −4}
2) Solve 5x 2 − 11 = 9; U=R
2
5x − 11 = 9 ⇐⇒ 5x = 202
√
⇐⇒ x 2 = 4 ⇐⇒ x = ± 4
⇐⇒ x = −2 or x = 2
The solution set is {−2, 2}
3) Solve (x + 1)2 = 9; U=R

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Example
1) Solve 3x 2 + 15x + 12 = 0; U=R
2 2
3x + 15x + 12 = 0 ⇐⇒ 3(x + 5x + 4) = 0
⇐⇒ 3(x + 1)(x + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = −4
The solution set is {−1, −4}
2) Solve 5x 2 − 11 = 9; U=R
2
5x − 11 = 9 ⇐⇒ 5x = 202
√
⇐⇒ x 2 = 4 ⇐⇒ x = ± 4
⇐⇒ x = −2 or x = 2
The solution set is {−2, 2}
3) Solve (x + 1)2 = 9; U=R
2
√
(x + 1) = 9 ⇐⇒ x + 1 = ± 9
⇐⇒ x + 1 = ±3 ⇐⇒ x = −1 ± 3
⇐⇒ x = −4 or x = 2
The solution set is {−4, 2} Solve x 2 − 8x − 20 = 0; U = R
4) Solve 4x 2 + 12x + 5 = 0; U = R
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Completing the square method

The method of constructing a perfect square is called completing the

square. It is based on the fact that in multiplying out the perfect
square (x + p)2 , with p a constant, we get

(x + p)2 = x 2 + 2px + p 2

Notice the relationship between the constant term,p 2 , and the coeffi-
cient of the middle term, 2p : The constant term is the square of half
the coefficient of the middle term.
Unlike the factoring method, all quadratic equations can be solved by
completing the square.

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Examples completing the square method
Example
1 Solve 8x 2 − 18x + 9 = 0; U=R

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Examples completing the square method
Example
1 Solve 8x 2 − 18x + 9 = 0; U = R factoring out 8
 
18 9 18 9
8 x2 − x + = 0 ⇐⇒ x 2 − x = −
8 8 8 8
18 81 81 9 9
⇐⇒ x 2 − x + = − =
8 64 64 8 64
2 9 9 81 9
⇐⇒ x − x − x + =
 8 8 64 64

9 9 9 9
⇐⇒ x x − − x+ =
8 8 8 64
 2
9 9
⇐⇒ x − =
8 64
9 3 9 3
⇐⇒ x − = ± ⇐⇒ x = ±
8 8 8 8
3 3
⇐⇒ the solution set is 2 , 4
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 26 / 71
Quadratic formula
If we were to complete the square for the general quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 we have

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 27 / 71

Quadratic formula
If we were to complete the square for the general quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 we have
 
b c
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇐⇒ a x2 + x + = 0 for a 6= 0
a a
b c
⇐⇒ x2 + x = −
a a
2
b b b2 c
⇐⇒ x2 + x + 2 = 2 −
a 4a 4a a
 2 2
b b − 4ac
⇐⇒ x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b 2 − 4ac
⇐⇒ x+ =±
2a 4a2
√ √
b b 2 − 4ac −b ± b 2 − 4ac
⇐⇒ x =− ± =
2a 2a 2a
√
−b± b 2 −4ac
Which is called the Quadratic formula x = 2a .
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 27 / 71
Examples with quadratic formula
1 Solve 2x 2 − 8x + 6 = 0

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 28 / 71

Examples with quadratic formula
1 Solve 2x 2 − 8x + 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula here a = 2, b =
−8, c = 6 then using the formula
√ p
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −(−8) ± (−8)2 − 4(2)(6)
x= =
2a 2(2)
√
8 ± 16 8±4
= =
4 4
Hence the solution set is {3, 1}

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 28 / 71

Examples with quadratic formula
1 Solve 2x 2 − 8x + 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula here a = 2, b =
−8, c = 6 then using the formula
√ p
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −(−8) ± (−8)2 − 4(2)(6)
x= =
2a 2(2)
√
8 ± 16 8±4
= =
4 4
Hence the solution set is {3, 1}
2 Solve x 2 − 5x + 2 = 0

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 28 / 71

Examples with quadratic formula
1 Solve 2x 2 − 8x + 6 = 0 using the quadratic formula here a = 2, b =
−8, c = 6 then using the formula
√ p
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −(−8) ± (−8)2 − 4(2)(6)
x= =
2a 2(2)
√
8 ± 16 8±4
= =
4 4
Hence the solution set is {3, 1}
2 Solve x 2 − 5x + 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula here a = 1, b =
−5, c = 2 then using the formula

√ p √
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −(−5) ± (−5)2 − 4(1)(2) 5 ± 17
x= = =
2a 2(1) 2
√ √
Hence the solution set is { 5+2 17 , 5−2 17 }
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 28 / 71
Quadratic Inequality

Definition
A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form ax 2 +bx +c <
0, a 6= 0 . (We can replace < with ≤, > or ≥)

In solving quadratic inequalities, after putting the inequality in standard

form, we will factorize in linear form and determine the sign of each
factor of the expression for various values of x . Then, we determine
the solution by examining the sign of the product on a number line.
This process is called a sign analysis.
The cut points of the inequalities (which are values that make the
factors zero) will break up the number line into intervals.
The sign of the product does not change within an interval, i.e., if the
expression is positive (or negative) for one value within the interval, it
is positive (or negative) for all values within the interval.
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 29 / 71
Examples of quadratic inequality

Example
Solve x 2 + 2x − 24 < 0

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 30 / 71

Examples of quadratic inequality

Example
Solve x 2 + 2x − 24 < 0
Let us first factorize into linear terms
x 2 + 2x − 24 = x 2 + 6x − 4x − 24 = x(x + 6) − 4(x + 6) = (x + 6)(x − 4)
The cut points are −6 and 4
-6 4
(x+6) – – – – 0 +++ + +++
(x-4) – – – – – – – – – 0 +++
(x+6)(x-4) +++ 0 – – – – 0 +++
Hence the solution set is {x ∈ R| − 6 < x < 4}

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 30 / 71

Examples of quadratic inequality

Example
Solve x 2 + 7x + 12 ≥ 0

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Examples of quadratic inequality

Example
Solve x 2 + 7x + 12 ≥ 0
Let us first factorize into linear terms
x 2 + 7x + 12 = x 2 + 3x + 4x + 12 = x(x + 3) + 4(x + 3) = (x + 4)(x + 3)
The cut points are −6 and 4
-4 -3
(x+3) – – – – – – – – 0 +++
(x+4) – – – – 0 +++ + +++
(x+3)(x+4) +++ 0 – – – – 0 +++
Hence the solution set of x 2 + 7x + 12 ≥ 0 is
{x ∈ R|x ≤ −4 ∧ x ≥ −3} = (−∞ − 4] ∪ [−3, ∞)

what if it does not have real roots and cannot be factored out into linear
terms?
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 31 / 71
Remark
The general solution of a quadratic inequality ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0, a 6= 0. If
it has no real root b 2 − 4ac < 0 then either ax 2 + bx + c > 0 for all x or
ax 2 + bx + c < 0 for all x but not both. To find out which one of the two,
it is sufficient to substitute any value for x and determine the sign of the
given expression.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 32 / 71

Remark
The general solution of a quadratic inequality ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0, a 6= 0. If
it has no real root b 2 − 4ac < 0 then either ax 2 + bx + c > 0 for all x or
ax 2 + bx + c < 0 for all x but not both. To find out which one of the two,
it is sufficient to substitute any value for x and determine the sign of the
given expression.

Example
Solve x 2 + x + 1 ≥ 0

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 32 / 71

Remark
The general solution of a quadratic inequality ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0, a 6= 0. If
it has no real root b 2 − 4ac < 0 then either ax 2 + bx + c > 0 for all x or
ax 2 + bx + c < 0 for all x but not both. To find out which one of the two,
it is sufficient to substitute any value for x and determine the sign of the
given expression.

Example
Solve x 2 + x + 1 ≥ 0
b 2 − 4ac = 12 − 4(1)(1) = −3 < 0 then
if we put x = 0, x 2 + x + 1 = 1 > 0 =⇒ x 2 + x + 1 > 0 for all x
Therefore the solution set of x 2 + x + 1 ≥ 0 is R = (−∞, ∞)
Solve −3x 2 + 5x − 4 > 0

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 32 / 71

Remark
The general solution of a quadratic inequality ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0, a 6= 0. If
it has no real root b 2 − 4ac < 0 then either ax 2 + bx + c > 0 for all x or
ax 2 + bx + c < 0 for all x but not both. To find out which one of the two,
it is sufficient to substitute any value for x and determine the sign of the
given expression.

Example
Solve x 2 + x + 1 ≥ 0
b 2 − 4ac = 12 − 4(1)(1) = −3 < 0 then
if we put x = 0, x 2 + x + 1 = 1 > 0 =⇒ x 2 + x + 1 > 0 for all x
Therefore the solution set of x 2 + x + 1 ≥ 0 is R = (−∞, ∞)
Solve −3x 2 + 5x − 4 > 0
b 2 − 4ac = 52 − 4(−3)(−4) = −23 < 0 then
if we put x = 0, −3x 2 + 5x − 4 = −4 < 0 =⇒ −3x 2 + 5x − 4 < 0 for
all x. Therefore the solution set of −3x 2 + 5x − 4 > 0 is ∅
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 32 / 71
Exercise
1 Find the solution set of x 2 + 3x + 5 ≤ 0
2 Find the solution set of 3x 2 + 5x + 8 > 0
3 What must the values of k be so that
1 −3x 2 + 8x + k ≤ 0 for all x
2 x 2 + 3x + k ≥ 0 only for x ∈ (−∞, −2] ∪ [−1, ∞)?
3 x 2 +13x +k = 0 has −4 as its root Find the second root of the equation.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 33 / 71

Review of relations and functions

Definition
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by
A × B , is the set which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate
is an element of A and second coordinate is an element of B , i.e.A × B =
{(a, b) : a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.

Example
Given A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {0, 2} we have The Cartesian product as
A × B = {(1, 0), (1, 2), (2, 0), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 2)}
B × A = {(0, 1), (2, 1), (0, 2), (2, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)}.
Note that A × B 6= B × A

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 34 / 71

Definition
Equality of ordered Pairs Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if
and only if a = c and b = d.

Example
Given A = {0, 1} and B = {1, 2} we have The Cartesian product as
A × B = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
B × A = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (1, 1), (2, 1)}. (1, 1) = (1, 1) and (1, 0) 6= (0, 1)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 35 / 71

Definition
Equality of ordered Pairs Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if
and only if a = c and b = d.

Example
Given A = {0, 1} and B = {1, 2} we have The Cartesian product as
A × B = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (1, 1), (1, 2)}
B × A = {(1, 0), (2, 0), (1, 1), (2, 1)}. (1, 1) = (1, 1) and (1, 0) 6= (0, 1)

Definition (Relation)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from A into B.

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R ⊆ A × B and

hence for each (a, b) ∈ A × B , we have either (a, b) ∈ R or (a, b) 6∈ R . If
(a, b) ∈ R , we say ”a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and write
aRb. If (a, b) 6∈ R , we say that ”a is not related to b”. In particular if R
is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 35 / 71
Examples on Relation
Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, a} Then

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 36 / 71

Examples on Relation
Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, a} Then
A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, a), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, a), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, a), (4, 2), (4, 3),
(4, a)} and
B × A = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (a, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (a, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (a, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4),
(a, 4)} consider the following relations

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 36 / 71

Examples on Relation
Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 3, a} Then
A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, a), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, a), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, a), (4, 2), (4, 3),
(4, a)} and
B × A = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (a, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2), (a, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (a, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4),
(a, 4)} consider the following relations
1 R1 = {(1, 2), (1, a), (4, 3)}
R1 is a relation from A into B as R1 ⊆ A × B. But R1 is not a relation from
B into A asR1 * B × A
2 R2 = {(a, 1), (3, 3), (3, 4), (2, 1)}
R2 is a relation from B into A as R2 ⊆ B × A .But R2 is not a relation from
A into B as R2 * A × B
3 R3 = {(2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
R3 is a relation from A into B as R3 ⊆ A × B and R3 is also a relation from
B into A as R3 ⊆ B × A
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 36 / 71
Domain and Range

Definition
Let R be a relation from A into B. Then,
a) The domain of R , denoted by Dom(R) , is the set of first coordinates
of the elements of R, i.e Dom(R) = {a : (a, b) ∈ R}
b) the range of R , denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second coordinates
of elements of R,i.e Range(R) = {b : (a, b) ∈ R}
The domain of R is a subset of A and Range of R is subset of B

Example
Suppose R = {(2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 4), (5, 6)} Then
Dom(R) = {2, 3, 5} and Range(R) = {3, 4, 6}
2 is related to 3 and 4

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 37 / 71

Example
1 Suppose A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {0, 5, a}
1 R1 = {(4, 0), (3, 5), (1, 0), (3, a)} is a relation from A to B

The domain of R1 = {1, 3, 4} and the range of R1 = {0, 5, a}

2 R2 = {(1, 0), (1, a), (2, 5), (3, 5)} is a relation from A to B

The domain of R2 = {1, 2, 3} and the range of R2 = {0, 5, a}

3 R3 = {(4, 0), (4, 5), (2, 5), (2, 0)} is a relation from A to B

The domain of R3 = {2, 4} and the range of R3 = {0, 5}

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 38 / 71
Remark
A relation R on a set A is called
i) a universal relation if R = A × A
ii) identity relation if R = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}
iii) void or empty relation if R = ∅

Example
i) Universal relation Relation on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} by R =
{(a, b) ∈ R : |a − b| ≥ 0} We observe that |a − b| ≥ 0 for all a, b ∈ A
⇒ (a, b) ∈ R for all (a, b) ∈ A × A ⇒ each element of set A is related
to every element of set A. ⇒ R = A × A ⇒ R is a universal relation
on set A.
iii) void or empty relation if there are 100 mangoes in the fruit basket.
There’s no possibility of finding a relation R of getting any apple in the
basket. So, R is Void as it has 100 mangoes and no apples.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 39 / 71

Inverse relation

Definition
If R is a relation from A to B , then the inverse relation of R , denoted by
R −1 , and is defined as:R −1 = {(y , x)|(x, y ) ∈ R}is a relation from B to A

Inverse of a relation is a set of ordered pairs obtained by interchanging the

coordinates of elements of R. Observe that Dom(R) = Range(R −1 ) and
Dom(R −1 ) = Range(R)

Example
Let R = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)} Then
R −1 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (4, 3), (6, 5)} Furthermore,
The domain of R = {2, 3, 5} =the range of R −1 and
The range of R = {1, 2, 4, 6} =the domain of R −1

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 40 / 71

Definition (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to
exactly one element of the [Link] other words, A relation f from A into B
f
is called a function from A into B, denoted by f : A 7−→ B or A −→ B
if and only if
(i) Dom(f ) = A
(ii) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e.
if (x, y ) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f then y = z

Remark
1 If the element x of A corresponds y (∈ B) under the function f , then
we write f (x) = y and y is called the image of x under f and x is
called a pre-image of y under f .
2 The symbol f (x) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.
3 Map, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word
[Link] f is a function and (x, y ) ∈ f , we say x is mapped to y .
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 41 / 71
Geometrically we can determine if the given graph is the graph of a
function or not This is possible by the following test
Remark
Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of
x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

from the figure the first one is not a function while the second is a function

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 42 / 71

Example
Given A = {0, 2, 3, c, 6} and B = {a, b, 4, 5} Determine whether the fol-
lowing relations are functions.
1 R1 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, 4), (c, 4), (6, 5)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 43 / 71

Example
Given A = {0, 2, 3, c, 6} and B = {a, b, 4, 5} Determine whether the fol-
lowing relations are functions.
1 R1 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, 4), (c, 4), (6, 5)is a function since no element
in A is paired with more than one element in [Link] element in the
domain,{0, 2, 3, c, 6}, is assigned no more than one value in the range.
2 R2 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, b), (c, 4), (c, 5), (6, 5)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 43 / 71

Example
Given A = {0, 2, 3, c, 6} and B = {a, b, 4, 5} Determine whether the fol-
lowing relations are functions.
1 R1 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, 4), (c, 4), (6, 5)is a function since no element
in A is paired with more than one element in [Link] element in the
domain,{0, 2, 3, c, 6}, is assigned no more than one value in the range.
2 R2 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, b), (c, 4), (c, 5), (6, 5)is not a function since the
domain element c is assigned to two different values in the range, 4
and 5.
3 R3 = {(0, a), (3, b), (c, 4), (6, 5)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 43 / 71

Example
Given A = {0, 2, 3, c, 6} and B = {a, b, 4, 5} Determine whether the fol-
lowing relations are functions.
1 R1 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, 4), (c, 4), (6, 5)is a function since no element
in A is paired with more than one element in [Link] element in the
domain,{0, 2, 3, c, 6}, is assigned no more than one value in the range.
2 R2 = {(0, a), (2, b), (3, b), (c, 4), (c, 5), (6, 5)is not a function since the
domain element c is assigned to two different values in the range, 4
and 5.
3 R3 = {(0, a), (3, b), (c, 4), (6, 5)is not a function since the domain ele-
ment 2 is not assigned to any element

Remark
1 In order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we first
show that the domain of f is A and next we show that f well defined or
single-valued, i.e. if x = y inA, then f (x) = f (y ) in B for all x, y ∈ A.
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 43 / 71
Note That
If f is a function from R into R. We will find it useful to use the following
vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable representing
possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the
variable representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered
pair notation (x, y ), x is the independent variable and y is the dependent
variable.

Definition (Domain, Codomain and range of a function)

For the function f : A 7−→ B
1 The set A is called the domain of f
2 The set B is called the codomain of f
3 The set {f (x) : x ∈ A} of all image of elements of A is called the
range of f

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 44 / 71

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let f : A 7−→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A, its square.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 45 / 71

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let f : A 7−→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A, its square. Thus,
we have f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {1, 2, 3}, Range(f ) = {1, 4, 9} and codomain of f is
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}.
2 Let A = {2, 4, 5, 6} and B = N the set of natural numbers. Let
f : A 7−→ B be a function defined by f (x) = 2x + 5.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 45 / 71

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let f : A 7−→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A, its square. Thus,
we have f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {1, 2, 3}, Range(f ) = {1, 4, 9} and codomain of f is
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}.
2 Let A = {2, 4, 5, 6} and B = N the set of natural numbers. Let
f : A 7−→ B be a function defined by f (x) = 2x + [Link], we have
f (2) = 9, f (4) = 13, f (5) = 15, f (6) = 17. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {2, 4, 5, 6}, Range(f ) = {9, 13, 15, 17} and codomain
of f is B = N.
n  o
p
3 Let f be the subset of Q × Z defined by f = q , p p, q ∈ Z, q 6
= 0 .

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 45 / 71

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}. Let f : A 7−→ B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A, its square. Thus,
we have f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {1, 2, 3}, Range(f ) = {1, 4, 9} and codomain of f is
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 10}.
2 Let A = {2, 4, 5, 6} and B = N the set of natural numbers. Let
f : A 7−→ B be a function defined by f (x) = 2x + [Link], we have
f (2) = 9, f (4) = 13, f (5) = 15, f (6) = 17. Therefore, f is a function
and Dom(f ) = {2, 4, 5, 6}, Range(f ) = {9, 13, 15, 17} and codomain
of f is B = N.
n  o
p
3 Let f be the subset of Q × Z defined by f = q , p p, q ∈ Z, q 6
= 0 .
First we note that Dom(f ) ∈ Q. Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now, 32 , 2 ∈ f , 64 , 4 ∈ f and 32 = 64 but

f 32 6= f 46 Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function

from Q to Z .
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 45 / 71
Example
Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x,
if so, find the domain.
2x
1 y = we can see that each x−value uniquely determines a y −
x −4
2x
value. Therefore,y = is a function.
x −4
As for its domain, Since it is a fractional expression, we must exclude
any value of x that makes the denominator equal to zero. We must
have x − 4 6= 0 ⇐⇒ x 6= 4Therefore, the domain consists of all real
numbers except for x 6= 4 thus Dom(f ) = {x : x 6= 4}
√
2 y = 2x − x 2 we can see that each x−value uniquely deter-
√
mines a y − value. Therefore,y = 2x − x 2 is a function and
2
Domain 2x − x ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ x(2 − x) ≥ 0 using sign chart is
0 2
x –––– 0 +++ + +++
Dom(f ) = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2}
(2-x) +++ + +++ 0 ––––
x(2-x) –––– 0 +++ 0 ––––
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 46 / 71
Real valued Functions

Definition
A function is called real valued function if and only if the range is a subset
of R.
In other words,Let f be a function from set A to set B. If B is a subset
of real number system R , then f is called a real valued function, and in
particular if A is also a subset of R, then f : A 7−→ B is called a real
function.

Example
1 The function f : R 7−→ R defined by f (x) = x 2 − 5x + 7, x ∈ R is a
real valued function
2 The function defined by f (x) = x 2 + xi, x ∈ R is not a real valued
function since the range is a complex number.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 47 / 71

Operations on functions

Definition (Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions)

Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions. We define the following four functions:
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) The sum of the two functions.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) The difference of the two functions
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) The product of the two functions
 
f f (x)
g (x) = g (x) The quotient of the two functions (provided g (x) 6= 0)
4

Since an x -value must be an inout into both f and g , the domain of

(f + g )(x) is the set of all x common to the domain of f and g . This is
usually written as Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ). Similar statements
hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In
the case of the quotient, we must impose the additional restriction that all
elements in the domain of g for which g (x) = 0 are excluded.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 48 / 71

Example
Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x − [Link] . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 49 / 71

Example
Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x − [Link] . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 2x + x − 2 = 3x − 2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
2 (f − g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 49 / 71

Example
Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x − [Link] . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 2x + x − 2 = 3x − 2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = 2x − x + 2 = x + 2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
3 (f · g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 49 / 71

Example
Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x − [Link] . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 2x + x − 2 = 3x − 2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = 2x − x + 2 = x + 2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = 2x(x − 2) = 2x 2 − 4x
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
 
f
g (x) =
4

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 49 / 71

Example
Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x − [Link] . Find each of the following and its
domain
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 2x + x − 2 = 3x − 2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = 2x − x + 2 = x + 2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = 2x(x − 2) = 2x 2 − 4x
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = R.
 
f f (x) 2x
g (x) = g (x) = x−2 ,
4
 
The domain Dom gf (x) (x) = Dom(f )∩Dom(g )\{g (x) = 0} = R\{2}.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 49 / 71

Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
1 (f + g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71

Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 1 + 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
2 (f − g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71

Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 1 + 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√ √
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = x − 1 − 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
3 (f · g )(x) =

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71

Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 1 + 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√ √
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = x − 1 − 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√
√ 
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = x −1 4 − x2
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] = [1, 2].
 
f
g (x) =
4

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71

Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 1 + 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√ √
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = x − 1 − 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√
√ 
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = x −1 4 − x2
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] = [1, 2].
  √
f (x)
f √ x−1
g (x) = g (x) = 4−x 2 ,
4
 
The domain Dom gf (x) (x) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) \ {g (x) = 0} =
([1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2]) \ {−2, 2} = [1, 2)
5 (f )3
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71
Example
√ √
Let f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = 4 − x 2 Find formulas for f + g , f − g , fg , gf
and f 3 and give their domains
√ √
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x − 1 + 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√ √
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) = x − 1 − 4 − x2
The domain Dom(f − g ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] =
[1, 2].
√
√ 
3 (f · g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = x −1 4 − x2
The domain Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) = [1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2] = [1, 2].
  √
f (x)
f √ x−1
g (x) = g (x) = 4−x 2 ,
4
 
The domain Dom gf (x) (x) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) \ {g (x) = 0} =
([1, ∞) ∩ [−2, 2]) \ {−2, 2} = [1, 2)
3 √
3
5 (f ) = x − 1 The domain Dom(f 3 ) = [1, ∞)
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 50 / 71
Definition (Composition of functions)
1 Given two functions f (x) and g (x), the composition of the two func-
tions is denoted by f ◦ g and is defined by: (f ◦ g )(x) = f [g (x)].
(f ◦ g )(x) is read as ” f composed with g of x”. The domain of f ◦ g
consists of those x 0 s in the domain of g whose range values are in the
domain of f , i.e. those x 0 s for which g (x) is in the domain of f .
2 In other words,Suppose f : A 7−→ B and g : B 7−→ C . Then the
composition of f and g , written g ◦ f , is defined as (g ◦ f )(x) =
g (f (x)), ∀x ∈ A It is immediate to see that g ◦ f : A −
7 →C

Example
Suppose f = {(a, 1), (b, 2)} and g = {(3, a), (4, b), (5, c)}.
The function (f ◦g )(x) = f (g (x)) is found by taking elements in the domain
of g and evaluating as follows: (f ◦g )(3) = f (g (3)) = f (a) = 1, (f ◦g )(4) =
f (g (4)) = f (b) = 2 Since c doesn’t have image in f it is not included in
the composition.f ◦ g = {(3, 1), (4, 2)}
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 51 / 71
Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x 2 − 3) = 2[2x 2 − 3] = 4x 2 − 6.
3 h◦f

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x 2 − 3) = 2[2x 2 − 3] = 4x 2 − 6.
3 h◦f (h ◦ f )(x) = h(f (x)) = h(2x) = [2x] + 1 = 2x + 1.
4 f ◦h

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x 2 − 3) = 2[2x 2 − 3] = 4x 2 − 6.
3 h◦f (h ◦ f )(x) = h(f (x)) = h(2x) = [2x] + 1 = 2x + 1.
4 f ◦h (f ◦ h)(x) = f (h(x)) = f (x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2.
5 g ◦ (f ◦ h)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x 2 − 3) = 2[2x 2 − 3] = 4x 2 − 6.
3 h◦f (h ◦ f )(x) = h(f (x)) = h(2x) = [2x] + 1 = 2x + 1.
4 f ◦h (f ◦ h)(x) = f (h(x)) = f (x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2.
5 g ◦ (f ◦ h) (g ◦ (f ◦ h))(x) = g ((f ◦ h)(x)) = g (2(x + 1)) =
2(2(x +1)) −3 = 2(4x 2 +8x +4)−3 = 8x 2 +16x +8−3 = 8x 2 +16x +5
2

6 (g ◦ f ) ◦ h

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71

Example
Suppose that f : R 7−→ R is a function given by f (x) = 2x, g : R 7−→ R is
a function given by g (x) = 2x 2 − 3, and h : R 7−→ R is a function given by
h(x) = x + 1. Then, find the functional expression for
1 g ◦f (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x) = 2[2x]2 − 3 = 8x 2 − 3.
2 f ◦g (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (2x 2 − 3) = 2[2x 2 − 3] = 4x 2 − 6.
3 h◦f (h ◦ f )(x) = h(f (x)) = h(2x) = [2x] + 1 = 2x + 1.
4 f ◦h (f ◦ h)(x) = f (h(x)) = f (x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2.
5 g ◦ (f ◦ h) (g ◦ (f ◦ h))(x) = g ((f ◦ h)(x)) = g (2(x + 1)) =
2(2(x +1)) −3 = 2(4x 2 +8x +4)−3 = 8x 2 +16x +8−3 = 8x 2 +16x +5
2

6 (g ◦ f ) ◦ h Therefore, (g ◦ (f ◦ h))(x) = [2(2x + 2)2 ] − 3 =

2(4x + 8x + 4) − 3 = 8x 2 + 16x + 5.
2

7 ((g ◦ f ) ◦ h)(x) = (g ◦ f )(h(x)) = (g ◦ f )(x + 1) = g (f (x + 1))

= g (2(x + 1)) = [2(2x + 2)2 ] − 3 = 8x 2 + 16x + 5.
Note that, (g ◦ (f ◦ h))(x) = ((g ◦ f ) ◦ h)(x) ∀x in the common domains.
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 52 / 71
Example
Given f (x) = 2x 2 − 3 and g (x) = 5x − 1, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x) (f ◦ g )(−2)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 53 / 71

Example
Given f (x) = 2x 2 − 3 and g (x) = 5x − 1, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x) (f ◦ g )(−2)
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (5x − 1)
= 2(5x − 1)2 − 3 = 2(25x 2 − 10x + 1) − 3 = 50x 2 − 20x − 1
(f ◦ g )(−2) = 239

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(2)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 53 / 71

Example
Given f (x) = 2x 2 − 3 and g (x) = 5x − 1, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x) (f ◦ g )(−2)
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (5x − 1)
= 2(5x − 1)2 − 3 = 2(25x 2 − 10x + 1) − 3 = 50x 2 − 20x − 1
(f ◦ g )(−2) = 239

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(2)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x 2 − 3)
= 5(2x 2 − 3) − 1 = 10x 2 − 15 − 1 = 10x 2 − 16
(g ◦ f )(2) = 24

c) (g ◦ g )(x) (g ◦ g )(1)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 53 / 71

Example
Given f (x) = 2x 2 − 3 and g (x) = 5x − 1, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x) (f ◦ g )(−2)
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (5x − 1)
= 2(5x − 1)2 − 3 = 2(25x 2 − 10x + 1) − 3 = 50x 2 − 20x − 1
(f ◦ g )(−2) = 239

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(2)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (2x 2 − 3)
= 5(2x 2 − 3) − 1 = 10x 2 − 15 − 1 = 10x 2 − 16
(g ◦ f )(2) = 24

c) (g ◦ g )(x) (g ◦ g )(1)
(g ◦ g )(x) = g (g (x)) = g (5x − 1)
= 5(5x − 1) − 1 = 25x − 5 − 1 = 25x − 6
(g ◦ f )(1) = 19
(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 53 / 71
Example
6x
√
Given f (x) = x 2 −4
and g (x) = 2x, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x), its domain and (f ◦ g )(8)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 54 / 71

Example
6x
√
Given f (x) = x 2 −4
and g (x) = 2x, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x), its domain and (f ◦ g )(8)
√
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f ( 2x)
√ √ √
6 2x 3 2x 3 16 3·4
= √ = = =
( 2x)2 − 4 (x − 2) 8−2 6
(f ◦ g )(8) = 2

The domain is = {x : 0 ≤ x < 2 ∧ x > 2} = [0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(−1)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 54 / 71

Example
6x
√
Given f (x) = x 2 −4
and g (x) = 2x, find
a) (f ◦ g )(x), its domain and (f ◦ g )(8)
√
(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f ( 2x)
√ √ √
6 2x 3 2x 3 16 3·4
= √ = = =
( 2x)2 − 4 (x − 2) 8−2 6
(f ◦ g )(8) = 2

The domain is = {x : 0 ≤ x < 2 ∧ x > 2} = [0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

b) (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(−1)
 s 
  r
6x 6x 12x
(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g 2
= 2 2
= 2
x −4 x −4 x −4
s r
12(−1) −12
(g ◦ f )(−1) = = =2
(−1)2 − 4 −3

The domain is = {x : −2 < x ≤ 0 ∧ x > 2} = (−2, 0] ∪ (2, ∞)

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 54 / 71
Example
Find two functions f and g so that the given function h(x) = (f ◦ g )(x) ,
where
a) h(x) = (x + 3)2
The outer function is f (x) = x 3 while the inner or the composed
function is g (x) = x + 3
√
b) h(x) = 2x − 1
√
The outer function is f (x) = x while the inner or the composed
function is g (x) = 2x − 1

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 55 / 71

Definition (Equality of functions)
Two functions are equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.

Let f : A 7−→ B and g : A 7−→ B be two functions. Then, f and g are

subsets of A × B. Suppose f = g .
Let x be any element of [Link], (x, f (x)) ∈ f = g and thus
(x, f (x)) ∈ g . Since g is a function and (x, f (x)), (x, g (x)) ∈ g , we must
have f (x) = g (x).
Conversely, assume that g (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ A. Let (x, y ) ∈ f . Then,
y = f (x) = g (x). Thus, (x, y ) ∈ g , which implies that f ⊆ g . Similarly,
we can show that g ⊆ f . It now follows that f = g . Thus two functions
f : A 7−→ B and g : A 7−→ B are equal if and only if f (x) = g (x) for all
x ∈ A.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 56 / 71

Example
Verify if the following pairs of functions are equal.
x 4 − a2
(a) f (x) = 2 , g (x) = x 2 − a;
x +a

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 57 / 71

Example
Verify if the following pairs of functions are equal.
x 4 − a2
(a) f (x) = 2 , g (x) = x 2 − a;
x +a
Dom(f ) = R and Dom(g ) = R. Hence, Dom(f ) = Dom(g ). In addition,
since for all x ∈ R we have
x 4 − a2 (x 2 + a)(x 2 − a)
f (x) = = = x 2 − a = g (x),
x2 + a x2 + a
the two functions are equal.
1 x −2
(b) f (x) = , g (x) = 2 . For x 6= 2,
x +2 x −4

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 57 / 71

Example
Verify if the following pairs of functions are equal.
x 4 − a2
(a) f (x) = 2 , g (x) = x 2 − a;
x +a
Dom(f ) = R and Dom(g ) = R. Hence, Dom(f ) = Dom(g ). In addition,
since for all x ∈ R we have
x 4 − a2 (x 2 + a)(x 2 − a)
f (x) = = = x 2 − a = g (x),
x2 + a x2 + a
the two functions are equal.
1 x −2
(b) f (x) = , g (x) = 2 . For x 6= 2, we have
x +2 x −4
x −2 x −2 1
g (x) = = = = f (x).
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x +2

However, since Dom(f ) = R \ {−2} =

6 Dom(g ) = R \ {−2, 2}, the two
functions are not equal.

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 57 / 71

Types of functions

Definition (one to one )

A function f : A 7−→ B is a one-to-one function or injective if it never
maps two distinct elements of A to a single element of B; that is, for every
x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 . equivalently, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
then x1 = x2 .

(AAU) Math 1012 (Chapter 2) July 12, 2021 58 / 71

Types of functions

Definition (one to one )

A function f : A 7−→ B is a one-to-one function or injective if it never
maps two distinct elements of A to a single element of B; that is, for every
x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 . equivalently, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
then x1 = x2 .
Example
(a) f : R 7−→ R given by f (x) = 2x + 1 is one-to-one because
2x1 + 1 = 2x2 + 1 ⇒ x1 = x2 .
(b) f : R 7−→ R given by f (x) = x 2 + 2 is not one-to-one because
x12 + 2 = x22 + 2 ⇒ x1 = ±x2 . That is x1 6= −x1 but f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

Horizontal Line Test: A function f is injective (one-to-one) if and only if

a horizontal line intersects its graph at most at one point only (i.e., not at
all or once).
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Definition (onto)
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or surjective) if every element of B is image of some element in A
, i.e, Range(f ) = B.

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Definition (onto)
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or surjective) if every element of B is image of some element in A
, i.e, Range(f ) = B.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {1, 4, 5}.
1 The functions f : A 7→ B defined as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 5, f (3) = 1 is
not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4.
2 The function g : A 7→ B given by g = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1)} is onto
because each element of B is the image of at least one element of A.

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Definition (onto)
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or surjective) if every element of B is image of some element in A
, i.e, Range(f ) = B.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {1, 4, 5}.
1 The functions f : A 7→ B defined as f (1) = 1, f (2) = 5, f (3) = 1 is
not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4.
2 The function g : A 7→ B given by g = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1)} is onto
because each element of B is the image of at least one element of A.

Definition (one to one correspondence)

A function f : A 7→ B is said to be bijective or (a 1 – 1 correspondence) if
f is both one to one and onto.

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Example
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A 7→ B
given by f (x) = 5x for all x ∈ A. One can easily see that every element of
B has a preimage in A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f (x) = f (y ),then
5x = 5y , i.e. x = y . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence
between A and B .

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Example
Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A 7→ B
given by f (x) = 5x for all x ∈ A. One can easily see that every element of
B has a preimage in A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f (x) = f (y ),then
5x = 5y , i.e. x = y . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence
between A and B .

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function with domain A and range B. Then, f has an
inverse function g provided that there is such a function g : B → A with
domain B and range A such that f (x) = y if and only if g (y ) = x, for all
x ∈ A and all y ∈ B.

Theorem
A function f : A → B with domain A and range B has an inverse function
if and only if f is a bijection.

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Example
1 If f : R 7→ R is defined by f (x) = 2x, then find an inverse of f .

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Example
1 If f : R 7→ R is defined by f (x) = 2x, then find an inverse of f .Let
y ∈ R be such that y = f (x). Then,y = f (x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x and
1 1
x = y . Hence g (y ) = y = x is inverse of f and is a function on R.
2 2
Check by replacing x by 21 y as f ( 12 y ) = 2( 12 y ) = y which is true.

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Example
1 If f : R 7→ R is defined by f (x) = 2x, then find an inverse of f .Let
y ∈ R be such that y = f (x). Then,y = f (x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x and
1 1
x = y . Hence g (y ) = y = x is inverse of f and is a function on R.
2 2
Check by replacing x by 21 y as f ( 12 y ) = 2( 12 y ) = y which is true.
2x
2 Suppose that f : R \ {1} 7→ R \ {2} be defined by f (x) = . Then
x −1
find the inverse of f .

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Example
1 If f : R 7→ R is defined by f (x) = 2x, then find an inverse of f .Let
y ∈ R be such that y = f (x). Then,y = f (x) = 2x ⇒ y = 2x and
1 1
x = y . Hence g (y ) = y = x is inverse of f and is a function on R.
2 2
Check by replacing x by 21 y as f ( 12 y ) = 2( 12 y ) = y which is true.
2x
2 Suppose that f : R \ {1} 7→ R \ {2} be defined by f (x) = . Then
x −1
find the inverse of f .
Clearly f is 1-1 and onto on the given domain and codomain sets.
Hence, it is invertible. Now to find the inverse function,
2x
y = f (x) = ⇒ y (x − 1) = 2x. Then solving for x in terms of y
x −1
y
yx − 2x = y ⇒ x(y − 2) = y or x = . Therefore, the inverse
y −2
y
function g is given by g (y ) = , or in terms of a variable x,
y −2
x
g (x) = .
x −2
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Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions

Definition (Polynomial Functions)

polynomial function is a function P of the form
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 an 6= 0
Each an is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer
called degree of the polynomial ,an is called the leading coefficient.

Remark
The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
(Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function. (P(x) = a1 x +a0 )
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.(P(x) = a2 x 2 +
a1 x + a0 )
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function (P(x) = a3 x 3 +
a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 )
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Zeros of a polynomial

Definition (Division Algorithm)

Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0 , and with the degree of
d(x) less than or equal to the degree of p(x). Then there are polynomials
q(x) and R(x) such that P(x) = d(x) q(x) + R(x) , where either
| {z } |{z} |{z} | {z }
dividend divisor quotient remainder
R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than degree of d(x).

If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d(x) , is linear (that is
of the form x − r ),we get p(x) = (x − r )q(x) + R

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Zeros of a polynomial

Definition (Division Algorithm)

Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0 , and with the degree of
d(x) less than or equal to the degree of p(x). Then there are polynomials
q(x) and R(x) such that P(x) = d(x) q(x) + R(x) , where either
| {z } |{z} |{z} | {z }
dividend divisor quotient remainder
R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than degree of d(x).

If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d(x) , is linear (that is
of the form x − r ),we get p(x) = (x − r )q(x) + R

Example
Use division algorithm to express the quotient when
P(x) = 2x 2 − 3x − 6 is divided by D(x) = x + 3
2x 2 − 3x − 6 = (x + 3) × (2x − 3) + 3

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Theorem (Remainder Theorem)
When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least 1 is divided by x − r , then the
remainder is p(r ).

Example
The remainder when P(x) = x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 1 is divided by x − 2 is p(2) = 9

Theorem (Factor Theorem)

x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r ) = 0.

Example
The polynomial P(x) = x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1 is divided by x − 1 then from
remainder theorem we have p(1) = 0. from factor theorem this implies x −1
is a factor of P(x) = x 3 + x 2 − 3x + 1

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Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
Any polynomial with real coefficients can be factored into linear and/or
irreducible quadratic factors (where some of them could be raised to the
power of some natural number k ≥ 1), with real number coefficients.

Example
Given the polynomial p(x) = x 3 − 6x 2 − 16x = x(x 2 − 6x − 16) = x(x −
8)(x + 2) The zeros of p(x) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.

location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within

an interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value
Theorem (Location theorem)
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a < b.
If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of f between a and b .

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Theorem (The Rational Root Theorem)
Suppose that f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1, an 6= 0
is an nth degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If qp is a rational root
of f (x) = 0, where p and q have no common factor other than ±1, then p
is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example
Find all the zeros of the function p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12

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Theorem (The Rational Root Theorem)
Suppose that f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1, an 6= 0
is an nth degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If qp is a rational root
of f (x) = 0, where p and q have no common factor other than ±1, then p
is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example
Find all the zeros of the function p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12
by Rational Root Theorem, if qp is a rational root of the given equation,
then the possible values of p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12and q : ±1, ±2Then
possible rational roots qp : ±1, ± 21 , ±2, ±3, ± 23 , ±4, ±6, ±12 We may check
these possible roots by substituting the value in p(x). Now p(1) = −30 < 0
and p(−1) = 12 > 0. by location theorem, p(x) has a zero between −1 and
1. Since p(− 21 ) = 0, then (x + 12 ) is a factor of p(x). Using long division,
we obtain p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12 = (x + 12 )(2x 2 + 2x − 24) =
2(x + 12 )(x + 4)(x − 3) Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are − 12 , −4 and 3.
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Rational,exponential and logarithmic function

Definition (Rational)
n(x)
A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = where both n(x)
d(x)
and d(x) are polynomials and d(x) 6= 0.
n(x)
The domain of the rational function f (x) = is x : d(x) 6= 0
d(x)

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Rational,exponential and logarithmic function

Definition (Rational)
n(x)
A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = where both n(x)
d(x)
and d(x) are polynomials and d(x) 6= 0.
n(x)
The domain of the rational function f (x) = is x : d(x) 6= 0
d(x)

Example
√ 3 2
The functions f (x) = x 22x+1
+3x+1
, g (x) = x+1 7
, h(x) = x +x5 −3 are all
rational functions, whereas the functions
√
(3/2) 1/2 +2
f (x) = x x+x 3 +1 , g (x) = x3x−5
2 +1 are not rational functions as their

either numerator functions or denominator functions are not polynomials.

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Definition (Exponential)
A function of the form y = f (x) = ax , where a > 0 and a 6= 1, is called an
exponential function.

Note That
For any positive real numbers a, b > 0, with a 6= 1, b 6= 1 and for any real
numbers x, y ∈ R, each of the following hold.
a) ax · ay = ax+y . b) (ax )y = axy .
ax  a x
c) (ab)x = ax · b x . d) x = .
b b x
a x 1
e) y = ax−y . f) a−x = .
a a
x √
g)b 0 = 1 h) a y = y ax

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Definition (Exponential)
A function of the form y = f (x) = ax , where a > 0 and a 6= 1, is called an
exponential function.

Note That
For any positive real numbers a, b > 0, with a 6= 1, b 6= 1 and for any real
numbers x, y ∈ R, each of the following hold.
a) ax · ay = ax+y . b) (ax )y = axy .
ax  a x
c) (ab)x = ax · b x . d) x = .
b b x
a x 1
e) y = ax−y . f) a−x = .
a a
x √
g)b 0 = 1 h) a y = y ax

Ex:- Solve the given exponential equation.

a) 3x+1 = 81 b) 4x = 32 c) 5x = √1
125

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Remark
The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
The graph of y = ax exhibits exponential growth if a > 1 or exponential
decay if 0 < a < 1.
The y - intercept is 1. and The x -axis is a horizontal asymptote
The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if ax = ay , then x = y
When the base a of the exponential function f (x) = ax equals to the
number e, where e = 2.7182 . . ., we call it the natural exponential
function.
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Definition (Logarithmic)
For a > 0 and a 6= 1, we write y = loga x to mean y is the exponent to
which a must be raised to yield x . In other words,x = ay ⇔ y = loga x

Note That
Let a, b ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) be arbitrary real numbers. Then for all x, y ∈
(0, ∞),  
x
(a) loga x + loga y = loga (xy ) (b) loga x − loga y = loga
y
log a x
(c) loga x y = y loga x (d) logb x =
loga b
(e) logb (b x ) = x logb b = x (f) b logb x = x

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Definition (Logarithmic)
For a > 0 and a 6= 1, we write y = loga x to mean y is the exponent to
which a must be raised to yield x . In other words,x = ay ⇔ y = loga x

Note That
Let a, b ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) be arbitrary real numbers. Then for all x, y ∈
(0, ∞),  
x
(a) loga x + loga y = loga (xy ) (b) loga x − loga y = loga
y
log a x
(c) loga x y = y loga x (d) logb x =
loga b
(e) logb (b x ) = x logb b = x (f) b logb x = x

Ex:- Solve the given exponential equation.

a) log2 (x 2 − 4) = 5 b) log3 (x 2 − 2x + 9) = 2

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Remark
The domain of a logarithmic function is the set of positive real numbers
Its range is the set of real numbers.
Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b > 1 and decay if 0 < b < 1.
The x-intercept is [Link] y-intercept & the y-axis is a vertical asymptote.
f (x) = log10 x is called the common logarithm function usually writ-
ten as: log10 x = log x.
f (x) = loge x is called the natural logarithm function. loge x = ln x.
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