CHAPTER TEN

DESIGN OF AN ENTRAINED FLOW GASIFIER

Co-Gasification of Petroleum Coke and Sawdust for Syngas and Power
Production

Process simulation performed in Aspen Plus®

Stream and equipment data exported to the project material balance workbook
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOC \h \o "1-3"
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Gasification is a thermochemical process that converts carbonaceous feedstocks – coal,
petroleum coke, biomass, or municipal waste – into a combustible gas mixture known as
synthesis gas (syngas), composed predominantly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, by
reacting the feedstock with a controlled, substoichiometric amount of an oxidant (oxygen, air, or
steam) at high temperature. Unlike combustion, which is designed to fully oxidise a fuel and
release heat, gasification deliberately operates fuel-rich so that the carbon in the feedstock is
converted mainly into CO rather than CO2, preserving the chemical energy of the feed in the
product gas rather than releasing it entirely as heat.
Of the several reactor configurations used commercially for gasification – fixed (moving) bed,
fluidised bed, and entrained flow – the entrained flow gasifier is the technology of choice for
large-scale, high-throughput applications where feedstock flexibility, high carbon conversion,
and a tar-free, high-quality syngas are required. In an entrained-flow gasifier, finely ground or
slurried feedstock is co-fed with the oxidant through a burner (or set of opposed burners) into a
refractory-lined reaction chamber, where the particles are entrained in the gas stream and react
essentially completely within a few seconds owing to the very high operating temperature
(typically 1300–1600°C).
This chapter presents the process and mechanical design of the entrained flow gasifier for the
co-gasification of petroleum coke (petcoke) and sawdust, the core reaction unit of the
gasification island highlighted in the process flow diagram (Figure 10.1). The gasifier receives
devolatilised petcoke and sawdust feed together with high-purity oxygen, and produces a raw
syngas that is subsequently cooled, quenched and cleaned of particulates and acid gases for
downstream use in power generation.

10.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The gasification island simulated in Aspen Plus® comprises the following unit operations,
summarised in Figure 10.1:
• B4 – Petcoke decomposition/devolatilisation reactor: petroleum coke (PETCOKE, 3500
kg/hr at 25°C) is broken down from its conventional-component characterisation into its
constituent elements (C, H2, N2, S, O2, ash) ahead of the gasifier, releasing 318,767
cal/s (1333.7 kW) of heat, and exits as stream FEED at 700°C.
• B3 – Sawdust decomposition/devolatilisation reactor: sawdust (SAWDUST, 1500 kg/hr
at 25°C) undergoes the equivalent decomposition step, absorbing 649,345 cal/s (2716.9
kW) of heat (endothermic, consistent with drying and devolatilisation of a moist
biomass), and exits as stream FEED2 at 700°C.
• RGIBBS – the entrained flow gasifier itself, modelled as a Gibbs free-energy
minimisation reactor. FEED, FEED2 and high-purity oxygen (OXYGEN1, 3800 kg/hr, 30
bar) are fed to the gasifier, which operates at 1500°C and 30 bar and releases a net duty
of 1,062,906 cal/s (4447.2 kW) to maintain the specified operating temperature. The
reactor output, PRODGIB, contains the raw syngas together with unconverted carbon
and ash.
• SOLIDSEP – a cyclone/solids separator that splits PRODGIB into the clean vapour-
phase syngas (MIXED) and the solid char/ash residue (NCCARBON), which reports
separately to slag handling.
The clean syngas (MIXED) is then routed to acid-gas removal (DESULPH) ahead of the
combined-cycle power island (gas turbine, HRSG and steam turbine), which lies outside the
scope of the present chapter. The reactor design boundary considered here is therefore the
gasification island circled in Figure 10.1: the two feed-conditioning blocks (B3, B4), the gasifier
(RGIBBS) and the downstream cyclone (SOLIDSEP).
Figure 10.1 Process Flow Diagram of the Gasification Island (Aspen Plus®)

10.3 GASIFICATION CHEMISTRY

Gasification proceeds through a sequence of drying, devolatilisation (pyrolysis), and char/gas-
phase reactions. In an oxygen-blown entrained flow gasifier, the feedstock first undergoes rapid
devolatilisation upon contact with the hot reaction zone, releasing volatile matter and leaving a
porous char residue; the char and the released light gases then react with oxygen and with each
other through a combination of exothermic oxidation and endothermic gasification reactions.
The principal reactions considered are:
C + ½ O2 → CO (Partial oxidation) ΔH = −111 kJ/mol
C + O2 → CO2 (Complete oxidation) ΔH = −394 kJ/mol
C + CO2 → 2CO (Boudouard reaction) ΔH = +172 kJ/mol
C + H2O → CO + H2 (Water–gas reaction) ΔH = +131 kJ/mol
CO + H2O ⇌ CO2 + H2 (Water–gas shift) ΔH = −41 kJ/mol
C + 2H2 → CH4 (Hydrogasification) ΔH = −75 kJ/mol
(H. Scott Fogler, 2004; Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Chapter 2)
The strongly exothermic oxidation reactions supply the heat needed to drive the endothermic
gasification reactions (Boudouard and water–gas) to completion, so that the net heat balance of
the gasifier is exothermic overall – consistent with the negative net reactor duty obtained from
the Aspen Plus® Gibbs-reactor simulation (Section 10.6). Because an entrained flow gasifier
operates well above the ash fusion temperature of the feedstock (typically >1300°C), mineral
matter in the feed melts to form a free-flowing slag that is continuously removed from the base
of the reactor, rather than remaining as a dry ash as in fixed-bed or fluidised-bed systems. This
is the defining characteristic that gives entrained flow gasifiers their high carbon conversion and
tar-free syngas, at the expense of a more demanding refractory and slagging system design.
Rather than solving the kinetic reaction network explicitly, the gasifier in this design was
modelled in Aspen Plus® using a Gibbs free-energy minimisation reactor (RGibbs), which
calculates the equilibrium product distribution of the specified element set (C, H, N, O, S) at the
reactor operating temperature and pressure. This approach is standard practice for entrained
flow gasifier simulation because the high operating temperature and multi-second residence
time bring the system close to chemical equilibrium (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Section
5.4); the resulting syngas composition is summarised in Section 10.7.

10.4 EQUIPMENT SELECTION

10.4.1 Gasifier Reactor Type
Commercial gasification technology is classified by the manner in which the feedstock and
oxidant are contacted within the reactor. Three configurations dominate industrial practice:
 • Fixed (moving) bed gasifiers: lump feedstock moves slowly downward through the
reactor counter-current to the rising gas, with distinct drying, pyrolysis, gasification and
combustion zones. They tolerate coarse feed and achieve high thermal efficiency, but
produce a tar-laden syngas and are limited in throughput per unit cross-section.
• Fluidised bed gasifiers: crushed feedstock is suspended in a bed of inert or catalytic
particles fluidised by the upward gas flow, giving good temperature uniformity and
feedstock flexibility, but operating at a moderate temperature (800–1050°C) that limits
carbon conversion and leaves significant unconverted char and tar in the product gas.
• Entrained flow gasifiers: pulverised or slurried feedstock is co-fed with the oxidant
through a burner into a refractory-lined chamber, with very short residence times (1–5 s)
but very high temperatures (1300–1600°C), giving near-complete carbon conversion and
a syngas that is essentially free of tar and methane.
The entrained flow configuration is selected for this design because:
• It accommodates the blended petcoke/sawdust feed at high throughput with a
comparatively small reactor volume.
• The very high operating temperature ensures near-complete conversion of both the
high-sulphur, low-reactivity petcoke and the biomass char, avoiding the lower conversion
typical of fluidised-bed systems on petcoke.
• The syngas produced is tar-free and low in methane, simplifying downstream gas clean-
up and making it suitable for combined-cycle power generation.
• Entrained flow technology (e.g., Shell SCGP, GE/Texaco, Siemens SFG) is the
dominant commercial choice for large, oxygen-blown gasification of coal and petroleum
coke (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Chapter 5; Rezaiyan & Cheremisinoff, 2005,
Chapter 4).

10.4.2 Feed and Slagging Mode

Entrained flow gasifiers are further classified as slagging or non-slagging, and by feed
preparation as dry-fed or slurry-fed. The design adopted here is a dry-fed, oxygen-blown,
slagging entrained flow gasifier:
• Dry feed (rather than a water/coal slurry) is selected because it avoids the latent-heat
penalty of vaporising slurry water, giving a higher cold gas efficiency – important given
the high ash and sulphur content of the petcoke feedstock.
• Oxygen blowing (rather than air) is used to avoid diluting the syngas with nitrogen,
producing a higher calorific value, smaller-volume product gas, consistent with the high-
purity OXYGEN1 feed stream (>98 mol% O2) in the simulation.
• Slagging operation, with the reactor operated above the ash fusion temperature, is
necessary because both feedstocks contain mineral matter (ash) that must be
continuously removed as molten slag rather than accumulating as a dry solid.

10.4.3 Justification
The single-stage, downward-fired, refractory-lined entrained flow gasifier is selected for this duty
because it allows:
• Short gas residence time (seconds), giving a compact reactor for the required
throughput.
• High carbon conversion (>94%, Section 10.7) without catalyst, owing to operation well
above the reactivity threshold of petcoke char.
 • Continuous, gravity-driven slag removal, eliminating the need for a separate ash-
handling system for fine ash carry-over.
• Flexibility to co-process a blended high-sulphur petcoke and a biomass (sawdust)
feedstock without the bed-agglomeration and feed-segregation problems that affect
fluidised-bed designs when handling mixed feedstocks of very different reactivity and
ash-fusion behaviour.
Because the gasifier operates above the ash-softening point, the vessel must combine a
pressure-retaining metal shell with a thick refractory lining (Section 10.8.6) to protect the shell
from both the process temperature and the corrosive, abrasive slag – this combined
refractory/pressure-shell construction is described in Section 10.5.

10.5 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION

The gasifier is a vertically orientated, downward-firing, refractory-lined pressure vessel.
Devolatilised petcoke and sawdust feed (streams FEED and FEED2, both at 700°C) and high-
purity oxygen (stream OXYGEN1, 30 bar) are introduced through a top-mounted burner
assembly into the upper reaction chamber. The particles ignite and react in suspension as they
travel down through the chamber; the high operating temperature (1500°C) and pressure (30
bar) drive the gasification reactions of Section 10.3 essentially to completion within a few
seconds residence time.
Mineral matter in the feed melts at the reactor operating temperature and drains as a free-
flowing slag down the refractory wall to a quench section at the base of the vessel, where it is
solidified and removed (represented in the simulation by the unconverted-carbon/ash stream
NCCARBON and the downstream SLAG stream). The raw syngas (PRODGIB) leaves the
reaction chamber carrying a small quantity of entrained fines, which are subsequently removed
in a cyclone (SOLIDSEP) to give the clean syngas stream MIXED.
The vessel construction follows established entrained flow gasifier practice (Higman & van der
Burgt, 2008, Chapter 6): an outer carbon/stainless steel pressure shell retains the 30 bar
process pressure, while an inner multi-layer refractory lining (a dense, high-alumina or chrome-
alumina hot-face castable backed by an insulating layer) protects the shell from the 1500°C
process temperature and from chemical attack by the molten slag. This refractory/pressure-shell
arrangement allows the metal shell itself to be designed for a much lower temperature than the
process gas (Section 10.8.6), in the same way that a fired-heater or boiler casing is thermally
decoupled from the flame temperature inside it.
Figure 10.1 Aspen Plus® Process Flow Diagram – Gasification Island (circled) and Downstream Power
Block
Source: Project Aspen Plus® simulation – stream duties in cal/sec, mechanical power in kW

10.6 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

10.6.1 Pressure Shell
The pressure-retaining shell is constructed of austenitic stainless steel, the most widely used
corrosion-resistant material in the chemical and energy industries. Its principal alloying elements
are chromium, which above 12% confers corrosion resistance, and nickel, which improves
resistance in non-oxidising environments; minor additions of carbon, copper, molybdenum and
titanium are used to tailor specific grades. Stainless steels are grouped into three broad classes:
 • Ferritic: 13–20% Cr, <0.1% C, no nickel.
• Austenitic: 18–20% Cr, >7% Ni.
• Martensitic: 10–12% Cr, 0.2–0.4% C, up to 2% Ni.
Austenitic stainless steel (Type 304) is selected for the gasifier shell because its uniform single-
phase structure gives superior corrosion resistance together with high tensile strength, ease of
fabrication (welding and annealing), and good toughness. Because the shell is protected from
the full process temperature by the refractory lining (Section 10.8.6), it operates at a much more
moderate metal temperature, well within the allowable range for this grade.
Property Value
Tensile strength >510 N/mm²
Modulus of elasticity >210 kN/mm²
Hardness, Brinell 160
Specific gravity 8.0
Table 10.1 Summary of Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steel 304 (typical, room
temperature) – Source: Sinnott, 2005

10.6.2 Refractory Lining

The refractory system protects the pressure shell from the 1500°C process temperature and
from chemical and erosive attack by the molten slag, and is the single most safety-critical
component of an entrained flow gasifier (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Section 6.2). A two-
layer system is adopted:
• Hot-face layer: a dense, high-chrome/alumina castable refractory in direct contact with
the slag and syngas, selected for its resistance to chemical attack by molten silicate slag
and to erosion by entrained particulates.
• Insulating backup layer: a lower-density insulating castable or brick that reduces the heat
flux reaching the pressure shell, allowing the shell to be designed at a much lower metal
temperature (Section 10.8.6).
Industrial entrained flow gasifiers (e.g., Shell SCGP, GE/Texaco) typically employ a combined
refractory thickness in the range 300–450 mm (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Section 6.2.1); a
total thickness of 380 mm (230 mm hot-face plus 150 mm insulating backup) is adopted for this
design, consistent with that industrial practice (Section 10.8.6).

10.7 PROCESS DESIGN BASIS AND MATERIAL BALANCE

The material balance for the gasification island was obtained from the Aspen Plus® simulation
(project workbook, sheet ‘Material’) and is summarised in Tables 10.2–10.4. The feed properties
(Table 10.2) were specified using the standard PROXANAL/ULTANAL/SULFANAL component-
attribute convention for non-conventional solid fuels (Aspen Technology, Aspen Plus®
Encyclopedia, 2023).
Property Petroleum coke Sawdust
(PETCOKE) (SAWDUST/BIOMASS)
Mass flow, kg/hr 3,500.00 1,500.00
 Property Petroleum coke Sawdust
(PETCOKE) (SAWDUST/BIOMASS)
Temperature, °C 25 25
Pressure, bar 1 1
Moisture, wt% 1.5 8.0
Fixed carbon, wt% 89.0 20.0
Volatile matter, wt% 7.5 70.0
Ash, wt% 2.0 2.0
Carbon, wt% (dry) 85.0 50.0
Hydrogen, wt% (dry) 5.0 6.0
Nitrogen, wt% (dry) 1.0 0.5
Sulphur, wt% (dry) 5.0 0.1
Oxygen, wt% (dry) 2.0 41.4
Table 10.2 Feedstock Proximate and Ultimate Analysis (Project Aspen Plus® Simulation)

Both feedstocks are decomposed to their elemental constituents ahead of the gasifier (blocks
B4 and B3 respectively) so that the downstream RGibbs reactor can compute the equilibrium
product distribution directly from the elements present. Decomposition is endothermic for the
moist, volatile-rich sawdust and exothermic overall for the petcoke, as summarised in Table
10.3.
Stream / Block Description Flow, kg/hr Temperature, °C Duty, kW
B4 Petcoke decomposition 3,500.00 700 (outlet) −1,333.7
(released)
B3 Sawdust decomposition 1,500.00 700 (outlet) +2,716.9
(absorbed)
OXYGEN1 Oxygen feed to gasifier 3,800.00 25 (feed) —
RGIBBS Gasifier reactor 8,800.00 (total in) 1,500 (operating) −4,447.2
(released)
Table 10.3 Feed Conditioning and Gasifier Duties (Aspen Plus® Simulation Results)

The gasifier mass balance closes exactly: the combined feed of devolatilised petcoke (FEED,
3500 kg/hr), devolatilised sawdust (FEED2, 1500 kg/hr) and oxygen (OXYGEN1, 3800 kg/hr)
totals 8800.00 kg/hr, matching the simulated gasifier product (PRODGIB) mass flow of 8800.00
kg/hr to within simulation rounding – confirming overall mass conservation across the RGibbs
reactor.

10.7.1 Raw Syngas Composition

The gasifier product (PRODGIB) comprises a vapour-phase syngas (96.74 mass%) and an
entrained solid fraction of unconverted carbon and ash (3.26 mass%). The vapour-phase
composition, common to both the raw gasifier outlet (PRODGIB) and the cyclone-cleaned
syngas (MIXED) since the cyclone removes only the solid fraction, is given in Table 10.4.
 Component Mole fraction, % Mass flow, kg/hr
CO 67.343 7,960.47
H2 30.377 258.43
H2S 1.284 184.68
H2O 0.311 23.65
N2 0.350 41.37
CO2 0.189 35.04
CH4 0.146 9.87
(CO + H2) 97.720 8,218.90
Table 10.4 Raw Syngas (MIXED) Composition – Average molecular weight 20.174 g/mol

The product gas is dominated by CO and H2 (97.72 mol% combined), with only minor inert (N2,
CO2, H2O) and acid-gas (H2S) content and a negligible methane slip – consistent with the
equilibrium-controlled, high-temperature behaviour expected of an entrained flow gasifier
(Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Section 5.4) and confirming that essentially no tar or heavy
hydrocarbon survives at 1500°C.

10.7.2 Carbon Conversion

Carbon conversion is defined as the fraction of carbon fed to the gasifier (in FEED and FEED2)
that is converted to gas-phase carbon species (CO, CO2, CH4), the remainder reporting as
unconverted carbon in the cyclone underflow (NCCARBON):
X_C = (C_in − C_unconverted) / C_in × 100%
From the simulation, total carbon fed (FEED + FEED2) = 2930.38 + 690.00 = 3620.38 kg/hr,
and unconverted carbon reporting to NCCARBON = 189.93 kg/hr (66.30 mass% of the 286.48
kg/hr NCCARBON stream, the balance being ash). Hence:
X_C = (3620.38 − 189.93) / 3620.38 × 100% = 94.75%
This carbon conversion is consistent with industrial entrained flow gasifier performance, which
typically achieves 95–99% carbon conversion for coal and petroleum coke feedstocks (Higman
& van der Burgt, 2008, Table 5.4; Rezaiyan & Cheremisinoff, 2005, Chapter 4).

10.7.3 Oxygen Requirement and Cold Gas Efficiency

The oxygen-to-carbon molar ratio is a key design and operating parameter for oxygen-blown
entrained flow gasifiers, governing the balance between carbon conversion, syngas quality and
oxygen consumption cost:
O2/C (molar) = ṅ_O2 / ṅ_C
With ṅ_O2 = 118.75 kmol/hr (OXYGEN1) and ṅ_C = 3620.38/12.011 = 301.42 kmol/hr (total
carbon fed):
O2/C = 118.75 / 301.42 = 0.394 mol O2/mol C
This value lies within the typical industrial range of 0.35–0.45 mol O2/mol C reported for
oxygen-blown entrained flow gasifiers (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Chapter 4), confirming
that the simulated oxidant feed rate is consistent with established commercial practice.
The cold gas efficiency (CGE), defined as the ratio of the chemical (higher heating value, HHV)
energy carried by the syngas to the HHV chemical energy of the feedstock, is calculated as:
CGE = [ṅ(y_CO·HHV_CO + y_H2·HHV_H2 + y_CH4·HHV_CH4)] / (ṁ_petcoke·HHV_petcoke
+ ṁ_sawdust·HHV_sawdust) × 100%
(Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Equation 4.1)
Using component HHVs of 283.0 kJ/mol (CO), 286.0 kJ/mol (H2) and 890.0 kJ/mol (CH4), and
representative feedstock HHVs of 33.0 MJ/kg for petroleum coke and 18.0 MJ/kg for woody
biomass (consistent with the ultimate analysis of Table 10.2; Basu, 2018, Table 3.3), the syngas
chemical energy is 32,677.6 kW against a feed chemical energy of 39,583.3 kW, giving:
CGE = 32,677.6 / 39,583.3 × 100% = 82.6%
This falls within the 75–83% range typical of well-designed commercial entrained flow gasifiers
(Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Table 5.4), confirming that the simulated operating point
represents a thermally efficient design.

10.8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

The chemical engineering design of the gasifier establishes the reactor volume, diameter and
length required to achieve the carbon conversion calculated in Section 10.7, using the gas
residence time and superficial velocity criteria established in industrial entrained flow gasifier
practice (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Chapter 5; Rezaiyan & Cheremisinoff, 2005, Chapter
4).

10.8.1 Parameters to be Determined

• Gas volumetric flow at reactor conditions (Q)
• Design gas residence time (τ)
• Reaction-chamber volume (V)
• Reactor (process) internal diameter (D)
• Reaction-chamber length (L)
• Superficial gas velocity (v)
• Freeboard/quench-zone length
• Refractory lining thickness
• Pressure-shell internal diameter and wall thickness

10.8.2 Equations Considered for Calculation

PV = nRT ………… (1) (H. Scott Fogler, 2004)
Q = ṅRT/P ………… (2)
V = Q × τ ………… (3) (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008)
V = (π/4)D²L ; L = (L/D)·D ………… (4)
v = Q/A , A = (π/4)D² ………… (5)
Where Q is the volumetric gas flow rate at reactor conditions, ṅ the gas molar flow, R the
universal gas constant, T the absolute reactor temperature, P the absolute reactor pressure, τ
the design gas residence time, V the required reaction-chamber volume, D the reactor internal
diameter, L the reaction-chamber length, v the superficial gas velocity and A the reactor cross-
sectional area.
10.8.3 Gas Volumetric Flow at Reactor Conditions
The gasifier operates at T = 1500°C (1773.15 K) and P = 30 bar. The vapour-phase (syngas)
molar flow leaving the reactor, from the Aspen Plus® simulation, is ṅ = 422.013 kmol/hr. The
corresponding volumetric flow reported directly by the simulation at these conditions is:
Q = 34,706.16 L/min = 2,082.37 m³/hr = 0.57844 m³/s
This value is used directly in the sizing calculations that follow, since it reflects the real (non-
ideal) gas mixture properties computed by the Aspen Plus® property package, rather than an
ideal-gas approximation.

10.8.4 Design Gas Residence Time and Reaction-Chamber Volume

Industrial slagging entrained flow gasifiers (e.g., Shell SCGP, GE/Texaco quench) are designed
for a gas residence time in the reaction chamber of 1–5 seconds, sufficient at the prevailing
temperature to drive the gasification reactions of Section 10.3 to the near-equilibrium carbon
conversion confirmed in Section 10.7.2 (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Table 5.1, p.155). A
design residence time of:
τ = 3.0 s
is adopted, representing the mid-point of the industrial range and consistent with the 94.75%
carbon conversion obtained from the simulation. From Equation (3):
V = Q × τ = 0.57844 m³/s × 3.0 s = 1.733 m³

10.8.5 Reactor Diameter, Length and Velocity Check

Industrial entrained flow gasifiers typically adopt a length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio of 3–5 for the
refractory-lined reaction chamber (Rezaiyan & Cheremisinoff, 2005, Chapter 4). An L/D ratio of:
L/D = 4.0
is adopted for this design. Combining with Equation (4):
V = (π/4)·D²·(4D) = πD³
D = (V/π)^(1/3) = (1.733/π)^(1/3) = 0.820 m
L = 4 × D = 4 × 0.820 = 3.282 m
The corresponding cross-sectional area and superficial gas velocity are checked against the
typical industrial range of 3–9 m/s reported for the burner/throat region of entrained flow
gasifiers (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, p.135):
A = (π/4)D² = (π/4)(0.820)² = 0.528 m²
v = Q/A = 0.57844/0.528 = 1.10 m/s
Note: the bulk freeboard velocity calculated above (1.10 m/s) is lower than the 3–9 m/s range
quoted for the burner throat itself; this is expected, since the throat (burner nozzle) velocity is set
independently by the burner design to ensure good flame stability and particle entrainment, while
the bulk reaction-chamber velocity calculated here governs only the residence-time-controlled
vessel sizing. The reaction-chamber diameter obtained therefore represents the refractory bore
of the vessel, downstream of the higher-velocity burner throat.

10.8.6 Freeboard/Quench Zone and Overall Vessel Length

A freeboard and slag-quench zone is provided below the main reaction chamber to allow final
particle disengagement and slag solidification before the syngas exits to the cyclone, following
standard entrained flow gasifier layout practice (Higman & van der Burgt, 2008, Section 6.2). A
freeboard length equal to 40% of the reaction-chamber length is adopted:
L_freeboard = 0.4 × L = 0.4 × 3.282 = 1.313 m
L_total = L + L_freeboard = 3.282 + 1.313 = 4.595 m

10.8.7 Refractory Lining Thickness

As discussed in Section 10.6.2, a two-layer refractory system is adopted, consistent with the
300–450 mm total thickness typical of industrial slagging entrained flow gasifiers (Higman & van
der Burgt, 2008, Section 6.2.1):
Layer Thickness, mm
Hot-face (high-chrome/alumina castable) 230
Insulating backup layer 150
Total refractory thickness 380
Table 10.5 Refractory Lining Design

The pressure-shell internal diameter is therefore the process (refractory bore) diameter plus
twice the refractory thickness:
D_shell,i = D + 2×t_refractory = 0.820 + 2(0.380) = 1.580 m
Taking a typical high-alumina castable refractory density of 3000 kg/m³ (Higman & van der
Burgt, 2008), the refractory volume and mass are:
V_refractory = (π/4)(D_shell,i² − D²)×L_total = 6.582 m³
m_refractory = 6.582 × 3000 = 19,747 kg ; W_refractory = 193.7 kN

10.8.8 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design

Parameter Value
Gasifier operating temperature, °C 1,500
Gasifier operating pressure, bar 30
Gas volumetric flow at conditions, m³/s 0.578
Design residence time, s 3.0
Reaction-chamber volume, m³ 1.733
L/D ratio 4.0
Reaction-chamber internal diameter, m 0.820
Reaction-chamber length, m 3.282
Superficial gas velocity, m/s 1.10
Freeboard/quench zone length, m 1.313
Total cylindrical vessel length, m 4.595
Refractory thickness, mm 380
 Parameter Value
Pressure-shell internal diameter, m 1.580
Carbon conversion, % 94.75
Cold gas efficiency (HHV), % 82.6
Table 10.6 Summary of Chemical Engineering Design Parameters

10.9 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN CALCULATIONS

10.9.1 Design Pressure
Vessels subject to internal pressure should be designed to resist the maximum differential
pressure likely to occur during operation. Following standard pressure-vessel design practice,
the design pressure is taken as 10% above the operating pressure (Sinnott, 1999; 2005):
P_design = 1.10 × P_operating = 1.10 × 30 = 33.0 bar = 3.30 N/mm²

10.9.2 Design Temperature

Although the process (syngas) temperature inside the gasifier is 1500°C, the pressure-retaining
metal shell is thermally protected by the 380 mm refractory lining described in Section 10.8.7.
Industrial entrained flow gasifier shells are accordingly designed for a much lower metal
temperature, typically in the range 250–350°C, governed by the steady-state heat flux through
the refractory rather than by the process gas temperature directly (Higman & van der Burgt,
2008, Section 6.2). A shell design temperature of:
T_design = 300°C
is adopted for the mechanical design that follows, consistent with this industrial practice and
providing a conservative margin on the expected refractory-protected metal temperature.

10.9.3 Material of Construction

As discussed in Section 10.6.1, the material selected for the pressure shell is austenitic
stainless steel (Type 304), chosen for its corrosion resistance, weldability and adequate design
stress at the 300°C shell design temperature.

10.9.4 Corrosion Allowance

Corrosion and erosion allowances are added to the calculated minimum wall thickness to
account for material loss in service. For stainless steel in elevated-temperature syngas service,
a corrosion allowance of 4 mm is adopted, consistent with Sinnott’s (1999) guidance that more
severe service conditions warrant an allowance greater than the 2 mm minimum used for mild
carbon steel in benign service.
The vessel must be designed against the worst combination of the following loads, none of
which act simultaneously at their maximum value (Sinnott, 2005):
• Design pressure, including any static head.
• Dead weight of the vessel, refractory lining and contents.
• Wind loading.
• Seismic loading.
 • Loads from supports, internal structures, and connecting piping.
• Thermal stresses arising from differential expansion across the refractory/shell interface.

10.9.5 Minimum Wall Thickness – Cylindrical Shell

The minimum thickness of a thin cylindrical shell required to resist internal pressure, with stress
governed by the circumferential (hoop) direction, is given by:
e = (P_i × D_i) / (2f − P_i) (Sinnott, 1999)
where e is the shell thickness (mm), P_i the internal design pressure (N/mm²), D_i the internal
diameter (mm), and f the design stress of the material at the design temperature (N/mm²). For
austenitic stainless steel 304 at 300°C, the design stress is f = 115 N/mm² (Sinnott, 2005, Table
13.2).
Taking the pressure-shell internal diameter D_i = 1580 mm (Section 10.8.7) and P_i = 3.30
N/mm²:
e = (3.30 × 1580) / (2 × 115 − 3.30) = 23.00 mm
Allowing 4 mm for corrosion, the minimum cylindrical shell thickness becomes:
e = 23.00 + 4.0 = 27.00 mm (rounded to 27 mm)

10.9.6 Minimum Wall Thickness – Ellipsoidal Heads

The gasifier vessel is closed at the top (burner mounting) and bottom (slag quench outlet) by
torispherical/ellipsoidal heads with a major-to-minor axis ratio of 2:1. The minimum head
thickness is given by:
e = (P_i × D_i) / (2Jf − 0.2P_i) (Sinnott, 1999)
where J is the weld joint factor, taken as 1.0 for seamless formed heads (Sinnott, 1999).
Substituting:
e = (3.30 × 1580) / (2 × 1 × 115 − 0.2 × 3.30) = 22.73 mm
Allowing 4 mm for corrosion, the minimum ellipsoidal head thickness becomes:
e = 22.73 + 4.0 = 26.73 mm (rounded to 27 mm)

10.9.7 Vessel Weight

The total weight of the cylindrical shell, excluding the refractory lining and internal fittings, is
estimated using the standard approximation (Sinnott, 1999):
W_v = 240·C_v·D_m·(H_v + 0.8D_m)·t
where C_v is a factor accounting for the weight of nozzles, manways and internal supports (C_v
= 1.15 for vessels with several manways and support rings, as adopted in the sample reactor
design of this report), D_m the mean shell diameter (m), H_v the cylindrical shell height (m), and
t the shell thickness (mm).
With D_m = D_shell,i + t = 1.580 + 0.027 = 1.607 m, H_v = L_total = 4.595 m and t = 27.0 mm:
W_v = 240 × 1.15 × 1.607 × (4.595 + 0.8×1.607) × 27.0 = 70,420 N ≈ 70.42 kN
The refractory lining mass, calculated in Section 10.8.7, contributes a further 193.72 kN. The
process fluid inventory within the reaction chamber is negligible by comparison (a few kilograms
of high-temperature gas). The total operating dead weight is therefore:
W_total = W_v + W_refractory = 70.42 + 193.72 = 264.21 kN
This total dead weight is markedly higher than for an equivalent unlined pressure vessel,
underscoring the importance of including the refractory mass explicitly in the support and
foundation design of an entrained flow gasifier – a feature not present in lighter, unlined reactor
designs.

10.9.8 Analysis of Stresses

Longitudinal and Circumferential Stress
The circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal stresses due to internal pressure are given by
(Sinnott, 1999):
σ_h = P·D_i / (2t) ; σ_L = P·D_i / (4t)
With P = 3.30 N/mm², D_i = 1580 mm and t = 27.0 mm:
σ_h = (3.30 × 1580)/(2×27.0) = 96.56 N/mm²
σ_L = (3.30 × 1580)/(4×27.0) = 48.28 N/mm²

Dead Weight Stress

The direct stress due to the total weight supported by the shell is:
σ_w = W / [π(D_i + t)·t]
σ_w = (264.21 × 10³) / [π(1580+27)×27.0] = 1.94 N/mm²

Bending Stress (Wind Loading)

The dynamic wind pressure for a design wind speed of 160 km/hr is (Sinnott, 1999):
P_w = 0.05×u_w² = 0.05×160² = 1280 N/m²
The wind loading per unit length, using the effective (outside) diameter D_o = D_i + 2t = 1580 +
54 = 1634 mm:
F_w = P_w × D_o = 1280 × 1.634 = 2,091.5 N/m
The bending moment at the base of the vessel (height H_v = 4.595 m):
M = F_w·H_v²/2 = (2,091.5 × 4.595²)/2 = 22,080 N·m
The second moment of area of the shell cross-section is:
I_v = (π/64)(D_o⁴ − D_i⁴) = 4.40 × 10¹⁰ mm⁴
and the resulting bending stress:
σ_b = (M/I_v)×(D_i/2 + t) = 0.41 N/mm²

Resultant Longitudinal Stress

Combining the pressure, dead weight and bending contributions (dead weight is compressive
and therefore subtracted):
σ_z (upwind) = σ_L − σ_w + σ_b = 48.28 − 1.94 + 0.41 = 46.75 N/mm²
σ_z (downwind) = σ_L − σ_w − σ_b = 48.28 − 1.94 − 0.41 = 45.93 N/mm²
Both resultant stresses are well below the design stress of the shell material (f = 115 N/mm²),
confirming the adequacy of the 27 mm shell thickness under the combined loading considered.
10.9.9 Vessel Support – Skirt Design
A cylindrical skirt support is selected for the gasifier, consistent with standard practice for tall,
vertical process vessels (Sinnott, 1999). As a first trial, the skirt thickness is taken equal to the
shell thickness (27 mm); the resultant stresses in the skirt are:
σ_bs = 4M_s / [π(D_s+t_s)·t_s·D_s] = 0.384 N/mm²
σ_ws = W / [π(D_s+t_s)·t_s] = 1.875 N/mm²
σ_s(tensile) = σ_bs + σ_ws = 2.26 N/mm² ; σ_s(compressive) = |σ_bs − σ_ws| =
1.49 N/mm²
The design criteria for the skirt (Sinnott, 1999) require:
σ_s(tensile) < f_s·J·sinθ_s ; σ_s(compressive) < 0.125E·(t_s/D_s)·sinθ_s
Using f_s = 165 N/mm² (allowable skirt design stress at ambient temperature), J = 0.85 (weld
joint factor) and θ_s = 90° (base angle):
2.26 N/mm² < 165 × 0.85 × sin90° = 140.25 N/mm² — SATISFIED
1.49 N/mm² < 0.125 × 200,000 × (27/1607) × sin90° = 413.1 N/mm² —
SATISFIED
Both design criteria are comfortably satisfied; the 27 mm skirt support will not fail under the
combined dead-weight and wind-bending load considered.

10.9.10 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design

Parameter Value
Design pressure, kPa 3,300
Design temperature, °C 300
Material of construction Austenitic SS 304
Pressure-shell internal diameter, mm 1,580
Cylindrical shell thickness, mm 27
Ellipsoidal head thickness, mm 27
Total cylindrical vessel length, m 4.595
Refractory lining thickness, mm 380
Weight of shell, kN 70.42
Weight of refractory, kN 193.72
Total dead weight (operating), kN 264.21
Circumferential stress, N/mm² 96.56
Longitudinal stress, N/mm² 48.28
Resultant longitudinal stress (max), N/mm² 46.75
Skirt support thickness, mm 27
Table 10.7 Summary of Mechanical Engineering Design