Chapter 3- Social Institutions: Continuity & change

Q1. What is caste?

Ans: The term caste is derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’
which means pure breed. In other words, it also means a
group/community of people. Caste is also called ‘jati’. Caste can
also be described as a segmental division of stratification in
society acquired by birth. According to
G.S Ghurye, “caste is a segmental division of society having a
hierarchy of groups, professing a fixed occupation, having allied
and religious disabilities and privileges with restrictions on
marriage, feeding and social intercourse. It is an endogamous
group determined by birth.

Q2. What is dominant caste?

Ans: A dominant caste refers to a middle or upper caste with a
large population and newly acquired land ownership rights.
These are from the Brahmins, Kshatriya or Vaishya varna but not
from lower castes.

Q3. Distinguish between Varna and Caste

Ans: Caste refers to the segmental division of stratification in
society acquired by birth that got formalized in the post Vedic
period. It is a fairly closed system which is very rigid and no
social mobility is possible. Varna literally refers to ‘colour’- a
nationwide version of the caste system dividing society into four
hierarchically ordered varnas or caste group named Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. It is an open system that
originated in the Vedic period where social mobility was possible.
Q4. What is the role of the ideas of separation and hierarchy in the
caste system?
Ans. The caste system can be understood as the combination of
two sets of principles, one based on difference and separation
and the other on wholism and hierarchy. Each caste is different
and strictly separated from every other caste on the basis of
restrictions. These restrictions are related to marriage, food
sharing and social interaction to occupation. Different and
separated castes do not have an individual existence. They exist
in relation
to a larger whole. This societal whole or system is a hierarchical
rather than egalitarian system. Each individual caste follows an
ordered rank—a particular position in a ladder like arrangement
going from highest to lowest.
The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction
between purity and pollution. Castes that are considered
ritually pure have high status, while those considered less
pure or impure have low status.
Historians believe that those who were defeated in wars were
often assigned low caste status.
Castes are not only unequal in ritual terms. They are
complementary and non-competing groups. It means each caste
has its own place in the system which cannot be taken by any
other caste. Caste is also linked with occupation, the system
functions as a social division of labour. It allows no mobility. This
idea of separation and hierarchy has inculcated discrimination,
inequality and prejudices in Indian society.

Q5. What are some of the rules that the caste system imposes?
Ans. The most commonly cited rules that the caste system has
imposed are as follows:
•Caste is determined by birth-a child inherits the caste of its
parents. One can never change one’s caste, leave it, or choose
not to join it. Caste is never a matter of choice.
•Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage.
Caste groups are “endogamous” i.e. marriage is restricted to
members of the group.
•Members of a particular caste have to follow rules about food and
food sharing.
•An individual born into a caste could only practice the
occupation associated with that caste, so that occupations were
hereditary.
•Caste involves hierarchy of rank and status. Every person has a
caste. Every caste has a specified place in the hierarchy of all
castes.
•Castes involve sub-division within themselves. Sometimes sub-
castes may also have sub-caste i.e. segmental organization.

Q6. Mention any 4 types of dominant caste?

Ans: Yadavas from Bihar, Jats from Haryana, Maratha caste from
Maharashtra, Reddys from Andhra Pradesh.

Q7. The institution of caste underwent major changes during the

colonial period. Explain
Present status of caste in India is more a product of colonialism
than of ancient Indian tradition. The British administrators tried
to understand the complexities of caste in an effort to learn how
to govern the country efficiently.
The most important official effort to collect information on caste
was through census. It began in [Link] 1901 census under
the direction of Herbert Risley was particularly important as it
sought to collect information on the social hierarchy of caste i.e.
the social order of precedence in particular regions, as to the
position of each caste in the rank order. The counting of caste
and the officially recording of caste made this institution of caste
identity became more rigid in India. The land revenue
settlements and laws gave legal recognition to the caste based
rights of the upper caste.
Large scale irrigation schemes were accompanied by efforts to
settle population there, and these also had caste [Link]
colonialism brought about major changes in the institution of
caste. In short, the Britishers took initiative in following areas:
(i) Census-to make sure of number and sizes of the castes and sub-
castes.
(ii)To understand the values, beliefs and customs of different
sections of society.
(iii) Land settlement.
Q8. In what sense has caste become relatively ‘invisible’ for the urban
upper castes?
Ans. The people who benefited the most from the changes in the
caste system were the urban middle and upper class. Caste status
ensured these groups the necessary economic and educational
resources and they took full advantage of the opportunities
offered by rapid development.
Particularly the upper caste elite were able to benefit from
subsidized public education, especially professional education in
science, technology, medicine and management. They were also
able to take advantages of the expansion of state sector jobs in
the early decades after independence.
Because of this earlier load over the rest of the society in terms
of education ensured a privileged status.
For the so-called SC and ST and backward castes this change
became detrimental. For these the caste became all too visible.
They had not inherited educational and social capital and they had
to compete with already established upper caste group. They
cannot afford to abandon their caste identity. They continue to
suffer from discrimination of various kinds.

Q9. Discuss the changes that took place in the Caste system after
independence.
Ans: Caste as an institution has been shaped as a result of the
influence of the colonial period and changes brought about in
independent India.
-The Govt. India Act of 1935 gave legal recognition to the lists of
‘schedules’ of castes and tribes. Gradually, towards the end of the
colonial period the welfare of downtrodden caste was looked after
by the administration.
- In Post independent India, programs were undertaken for the
upliftment of depressed classes. Social reformers like Jyotiba
Phule, Periyar etc. worked towards lower cate upliftment,
abolition of caste distinctions and other restrictions.
- The abolition of caste was explicitly incorporated in the
Constitution by the state. During this period some of the steps
undertaken were reservation of seats for SC & ST’s no caste rules
in the jobs created in the modern industry, urbanization and
collective living in cities and stress on meritocracy.
-In the cultural and domestic spheres caste has remained
unaffected by modernization and change while in the sphere of
politics it has been deeply conditioned by caste as formation of
caste based political parties.

Q10. Define Tribes

Ans: Tribe is a modern term, which refers to communities that
are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of the sub-
continent. The tribal communities didn’t practice a religion with a
written text, didn’t have state class divisions and they didn’t
have caste and were neither Hindus nor peasants. The term tribe
was used in the colonial era mainly for administrative
convenience to refer to a very disparate set of communities.

Q11. Mention isolation and integration debate on Tribe.

Ans: The ‘isolation’ and ‘integration’ debate on tribes is based
upon tribal societies as isolated wholes. The isolationist believed
that tribals needed protection from traders, moneylenders and
Hindu and Christian missionaries, all of whom try to reduce
tribals to detribalized landless
labour. The integrationists believe that tribals’ are merely
backward Hindus, and their problems had to be addressed within
the same framework as that of other backward classes.

Q12. Mention two broad sets of issues that were most important in
giving rise to tribal communities.
Ans: The two broad set of issues that were most important in
giving rise to tribal communities in India are as follows:
 Issues relating to control over vital economic resources like
land and specially forests.
  Issues relating to matters of ethnic- cultural identity.

Q13. What evidence would you offer against the view that ‘tribes are
primitive communities living isolated lives untouched by civilization?
Ans. There is no reason to believe that tribes are out of contact
with the rest of world or have always been the oppressed section
of the society.
This can be said because of the following
reasons:
Gond Kingdoms in central India such as that of Garha Mandla or
Chanda.
Many of the Rajput Kingdoms of central and western India
emerged through a process of stratification among adivasi
communities themselves.
Adivasi often exercised dominance over the plains people through
their capacity to raid them and through their services as local
militias.
They also occupied a special trade niche, trading forest produce,
salts and elephants.
Evidences substantiating tribes as primitive communities:
1. Tribes have not a state or political form of the normal kind.
2. They have no written rules on religion.
3. They are neither Hindus nor peasants.
4. Primarily they are engaged in activities like food
gathering, fishing, hunting, agriculture etc.
5. The habitat of tribes is in dense forests and mountainous
regions.

Q14. What are the factors behind the assertion of tribal identities
today?
Ans. • Forced incorporation of tribal communities has had a
negative impact on tribal cultures
and, society as much as its economy.
•Tribal identities are today formed by interactional process.
•Because this interactional process has not been in favour of the
tribes, many tribal identities are based on ideas of resistance and
opposition to the overwhelming force of the non-tribal world.
•The positive impact of success such as the achievement of
statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, is marred by
continuous problems. Many citizens of the northeastern states
have been living under special laws that limit their civil liberties.
The vicious circle of armed rebellions provoking state repression
which in turn fuels further rebellions has taken a heavy toll on the
culture, economy, and society of these north-eastern states.
•Gradual emergence of an educated middle class in
conjunction with the policy of reservation is creating an
urbanised professional class. As tribal societies get more and
more differentiated i.e.
developed class and other division within themselves, current
bases grow for the assertion of tribal identity.
•These issues are categorised to control over vital economic
resources like land and specially forests, and issues relating to
matters of ethnic-cultural identity.
•Due to divisions within the tribes, the reason for asserting tribal
identity may be different for different group of tribals.
Q15. Highlight the sources of conflict between National Development
and Tribal Development.
Ans: National Development involves the building of large dams,
factories and mines and these
many a times were undertaken at the expense of the tribes.
- Tribals have paid disproportionate price for the development of
the rest of Indian society.
- The loss of the forests on which tribal communities depended
has been a major blow to them.
- Coming of private property adversely affected tribals,
especially their community-based collective ownership, were
placed at a disadvantage in the new system.
- Heavy in migration of non-tribals threatens to disrupt their culture.
- Tribal identities today, are centered on ideas of resistance and
opposition to the force exercised by the non-tribal world. The
formation of Jharkhand and Chattisgarh has been a result of this
assertion of tribal identity but the political system is still not
autonomous.
- Tribal movements emerged to tackle issues related to control
over vital economic resources, matters of ethnic cultural
identity. All this has been made possible due to the gradual
emergence of an educated middle class among tribal
communities, though the
assertion of identity of tribal middle class maybe different from a
poor and uneducated one.

Q16. Distinguish between Nuclear and Joint families

JOINT FAMILY -
A family group that consists only of parents and their children is
called a nuclear family. On the other hand, a family which
extends beyond the nuclear family to include grandparents and
sometimes other relatives also is called an extended family.

Q17. Define Kinship

Ans: In common parlance, kinship is understood as part of culture
which deals with notions of or
ideas about relatedness or relationship through birth and marriage.

Q18. What are some of the different forms that the family can take?
Ans. Family is a very important social institution. In either form
i.e. nuclear or extended, it has a role to perform. Lately, a lot of
changes have come about in the structure for example, those
people employed in the software industry have odd working hours
hence grandparents have shifted in as caregivers to young.
A family could be headed by a male or female; descent could be
traced from the mother or the father. This structure and
composition of the family is based on various factors such as
economy, polity, culture and education.
The changes in the structure of family that we see today could be
(i) Same sex marriage
(ii) Love marriage
But history and contemporary times suggest that such changes
are met with violent reactions.

Nuclear Family: It consists of one set of parents and their children.

Extended Family: It consisted of more than one couple and, often,
more than two generations live together. The extended family is
symptomatic of India.
Diverse forms of family
(i) Matrilocal-patrilocal (based on residence)
(ii) Matrilineal and patrilineal (based on rules of inheritance)
(iii) Matriarchal and patriarchal (based on authority)

Q19. In what ways can changes in social structure lead to changes in

the family structure?
Ans. The structure of family can be seen as social institution and
also in its relationship to other social institution of society.
•The internal structure of the family is usually related to other
structure of society i.e. political, economic, cultural, etc.
Therefore, any significant change in behaviour pattern of
members of family may change the nature of society for example
working schedules of young parents in the software industry in
India may lead to increasing number of grandparents moving in
as caregivers to the young grandchildren.
•The composition of the family and its structure thereby
changes. And these changes can be understood in relation to
other changes in society.
•The family (the private sphere) is linked to the economic,
political, cultural and educational (the public) spheres.
•Sometimes the changes in the families and corresponding changes
in the society occur accidently e.g. due to war or riots people
migrate in search of work or for security reasons.
•Sometimes these changes are purposefully brought about, e.g.
due to independence and openness of ideas, people choosing
their jobs, life partner and life style and such changes are
very frequent in the Indian society.

Q20. Explain the difference between matriliny and matriarchy.

Ans. Matriliny.
•In the states of Meghalaya, the tribes of Khasi, Jaintia, Garo and
in the state of Kerala- the Nair community are examples where
property inheritance goes from mother to daughter whereas
control passes from maternal uncle to Nephew.
•It means a women inherits property from mother and passes on
to her daughter while a man controls his sister’s property and
passes on control to his sister’s son.
•This matriliny generates intense role conflict for men because
they are in conflict between their responsibilities to their own
house on the one hand and to their wife and children on the
other-
“Should I pay more attention to my family or my sister’s family.”
This role conflict is for woman [Link] possesses only token
authority, men are the defacto powerholders. Despite matriliny,
men are the powerholders.

Matriarchy
•In such societies the women exercise authority and play dominant
role.
•Practically it is only a theoretical concept as it never allows the
women to have real power of dominance.
•Realistically has not existed even in matrilineal families.

Q21. What are the main factors influencing the formation of tribal
identity today?
Ans: Tribal identities today are centered on ideas of resistance
and opposition to the force exercised by the non-tribal world.
- The formation of Jharkhand and Chattisgarh has been a
result of this assertion of tribal identity by the political system
is still not autonomous.
- Tribal movements emerged to tackle issues related to control
over vital economic resources, matters of ethnic cultural
identity. All this has been made possible due to the gradual
emergence
of an educated middle class among tribal communities, though
the assertion of identity of tribal middle class maybe different
from a poor and uneducated one.

Q22. Explain the meaning of Sanskritization

Ans: Sanskritization refers to a process whereby members of a
(usually middle or lower) caste attempt to raise their own social
status by adopting a ritual, domestic and social practices of a
caste of higher status. Although this phenomenon is an old one
and predates Independence and even the colonial period, it has
intensified in recent times. The patterns for emulation chosen
were most often the brahmin or kshatriya castes: practices
included adopting vegetarianism, wearing of sacred thread,
performance of specific
prayers and religious ceremonies and so on. Sanskritization
usually accompanies or follows a rise in the economic status of
the caste attempting it, though it may also occur independently.

23. Discuss the theoretical interpretation or principles of the caste

system.
Ans: The Caste system in India is a combination of two sets of
principles
1. Difference and separation: The scriptural rules ranging from
marriage, food sharing to occupation prevents the mixing of
castes.
2. Wholism and hierarchy: the hierarchical division of caste, on
the other hand is based on the distinction between ‘purity and
pollution’
In the Caste system, endogamy is the practice of marrying within
the caste. Exogamy is the practice of marrying outside the clan or
gotra.
A proprietary caste group is a group that owns most of the
resources and can command labour to work for them.
Caste panchayats are panchayats which are controlled by the
dominant group and represent their interest, needs and
demands. Primarily decision making is controlled by the upper
caste, rich
landlords and landed peasants