MODULE 4

PHOTONICS
LASERS
The acronym for LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Interaction of Radiation with Matter:

Radiation Interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction leads
to an abrupt transition from one energy level to another. There are 3 kinds of transition
involving electromagnetic radiation is possible between two energy levels E1 and E2 in an
atom.

1. Induced Absorption:
If the atom is initially in the lower state E1, it can be raised to E2 by absorbing a
photon of energy E2 – E1 = hγ. This process is called induced absorption.

Atom + Photon Atom*

2. Spontaneous emission:
If the atom is initially in the upper energy state E2, it can drop to E1 by emitting a
photon of energy hγ, this is spontaneous emission.

Atom* Atom + Photon

1
3. Stimulated emission:
Einstein suggested that under certain conditions, it is possible to stimulate an excited
atom to emit a photon by another matching photon. An atom in an excited state may under
the influence of electromagnetic filed of a photon of frequency γ incident upon it, jump to a
lower energy state, emitting additional photon of same frequency γ. This is known as
stimulated emission of radiation. The radiated light waves are exactly inphase with the
incident ones. So the result is an enhanced beam of coherent light.

Atom* + Photon Atom + (Photon + Photon)

Principle of Lasers:
Let us consider an assembly of atoms of some kind that have metastable state of
excitation energy hγ. Suppose we somehow raise the majority of the atoms to the metastable
level. If now we introduce light of frequency ‘γ’ on the assembly, there will be more induced
emission from the metastable level than induced absorption by the lower level. The result
will be an amplification of original light. This is the concept of Lasers.

Population inversion:
Any material consists of collection of atoms, molecules or ions. Under normal
circumstances there is always a large number of atoms in the lower energy state than in the
excited state. Then by some means, we can make number of atoms (N2) in the excited state
is grater than the number of atoms (N1) in lower state, then one can say that population
inversion is attained by the atomic system.
Pumping:
The method of achieving population inversion is called pumping.
Some pumping techniques are….
1. Optical pumping
2. Electrical pumping
3. Chemical pumping
4. Electron beam pumping…..etc,.

2
Boltzmann factor:
At thermal equilibrium the ratio of population of the upper energy state to the lower
energy state is given by,
h
 N2   E2 − E1 
  −
  = e −  KT  = e KT
 N1 
E2 > E1, e-(hγ/KT) < 1, Then N2 < N1

Einstein’s coefficients [Expression for energy density at thermal equilibrium]

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the atoms with
energy E1 and E2 per unit volume of the system. N1 and N2 are called the number density of
atoms in the states 1 and 2 respectively. Let the radiation be incident on the system. Let ‘Uγ
dγ’ be the energy incident per unit volume of the system in the frequency range γ and γ +
dγ. Here ‘Uγ’ is energy density.

Case i) Induced absorption

Here the radiation absorbed is a frequency γ. The number of such absorption per unit
time, per unit volume is called rate of absorption. The rate of absorption depends upon,

a) the number density of lower energy state. i.e., N1

b) energy density, i.e., Uγ
Rate of absorption  N1Uγ
Or, Rate of absorption = B12 N1Uγ ---- (1)

Where ‘B12’ is constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient of induced

absorption,

3
Case ii) Spontaneous emission
Here transition is voluntary. The number of spontaneous emissions per unit time, per
unit volume is called rate of spontaneous emission. It depends upon only the number density
in the higher energy state, i.e., N2

 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 ---- (2)

Where ‘A21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

Case iii) Stimulated emission

Since the system requires an external photon of appropriate frequency γ, to stimulate
the atom. The number of stimulated emissions per unit time, per unit volume, called
rate of stimulated emission, is proportional to

a) the number density of the higher energy state, i.e., N2

b) the energy density, i.e., Uγ

 Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ ---- (3)

Where ‘B21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

Under thermal equilibrium, the number of photons absorbed by the system per
second must be equal to the number of photons it emits per second by both the stimulated
and the spontaneous emission processes.

i.e., Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

From equations (1), (2) and (3),

4
 B12 N1Uγ = A21N2 + B21 N2 Uγ
Or, Uγ (B12 N1 – B21 N2) = A21N2
A21 N 2
Or, U =
B12 N1 − B21 N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get,
 
A  1 
U  = 21   ---- (4)
B21  B12 N 1 
 B N − 1
 21 2 
But, by Boltzmann’s law, we have,
h
 N2   E2 − E1 
  −
  = e −  KT  = e KT
 N1 
h
N1
 = e KT
N2

 Equation (4) becomes,

 
 
A21  1 
U = ---- (5)
B21  B12 KTh

 e − 1
 B21 
According to Planck’s law, the equation for ‘Uγ’ is
 
8h 3  1 
U = ---- (6)
c 3  KT h

 e − 1
By comparing equations (5) and (6), we have,
A21 8h 3 B12
= and =1 or B12 = B21
B21 c3 B21

i.e., The probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of stimulated emission.
 At thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is

A
U = h
 
B e KT
− 1
 

5
Discussions of Einstein’s coefficients
i) Dependence of emission on frequency
A21 8h 3
We know that, = --- (1)
B21 c3
Where ‘A21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
and ‘B21’ is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.
A21
  3
B21

 E 
Since  =   , When the energy difference between the two levels E1 and E2 is large,
 h 
A 
Then,  21   1 OR A21  B21
 B21 
 For higher ΔE values, the probability of spontaneous emission is more.

ii) System in thermal equilibrium

 
8h 3  1  A21 8h 3
We know that, U  = -- (2) and =
c 3  KTh
 B21 c3
 e − 1
h
A21  KT 
 
=  e − 1 --- (3)
B21 U   
h

Case (a): hγ >> KT: e KT   1

A 
Hence equ (3)   21   1 OR A21  B 21
 B21 
Spontaneous emissions are much larger.
h

Case (b): hγ = KT: Here e KT

will be low and comparable to 1.  A21 and B21 are
comparable, which means that stimulated emission becomes significant
B21 >> A21
h
 KT   A21 
Case (c): hγ << KT:  e − 1   1 and     1 OR B21  A21
 
   B21 
Hence for lower frequencies, stimulated emissions dominate. This is what we observe at
room temperature.

6
 iii) Non-equilibrium conditions leading to amplification

We know that, Rate of emissions = A21N2 + B21 N2 Uγ ---- (4)

Rate of absorption = B12 N1Uγ ---- (5)

Rate of emissions A 21 N 2 + B 21 N 2 U  N  A21 + B21U  

= = 2  
Rate of absorption B12 N 1 U  N 1  B12U  

Since B12 = B21

Rate of emissions N  A 
= 2  21 + 1 --- (6)
Rate of absorption N 1  B12U  

If ΔE < < KT i.e., hγ < < KT (Case c)

 A21 
Then    1
 B12U  

Then equation (6) becomes

Rate of emissions N
= 2
Rate of absorption N1

We know that in normal condition N2 < N1. If we made N2 > N1 by some means, the
system will be in non equilibrium condition since by Boltzmann factor.

In this case, rate of emission exceeds the rate of absorptions. Further if the photons
emitted in a particular direction are returned in to the system by reflecting them back and
forth, then the rate of stimulated emission exceeds the absorption rate. If right conditions
are provided, all the stimulated emissions could be arranged to be identical in respect of
wavelength, phase and direction to the starting stimulating radiation, then that itself has been
amplified. To achieve this we should maintain N2 > N1 always. This forms the basis for
functioning of every laser.

7
Requisites of a Laser system

i. Energy source for Pumping

Pumping is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy
level.
ii. Active Medium
The medium which when excited achieves population inversion. It may be a solid,
Liquid or gas.
iii. Resonating cavity/Optical cavity - This cavity is used to amplify the laser beam.
• The resonating cavity consists of two mirrors, one fully (100%) reflecting and the
other partially reflecting (<100%), placed parallel to each other outside the
resonating cavity.

𝒏𝝀
The length of the cavity is given by the equation 𝑳 = 𝟐𝝁 where L is length of the cavity, 𝝀

is the wavelength of the beam, n is the number of possible modes inside the cavity and 𝝁 is
the refractive index of the medium

Conditions for Laser action

i. Meta Stable State
Definition: It is the energy state in which the excited atoms remain for longer time
10-3 to 10-2 s compare to the normal excited state with life time  10-8s.
• Therefore, the atoms get sufficient time to interact with the photons and de-excite to
lower energy level by stimulated emission.
ii. Population Inversion
Definition: It is the state of the system at which the number density of atoms in higher
energy level (N2) is greater than that of the lower energy level (N1).
Or
Definition: It is the condition of having 𝑁2 ≫ 𝑁1 .
Note: Population inversion is sustainable only when the system has metastable state.

8
Collision of first kind

e1 + A e2 + A*

Collision of second kind

A* + B A + B*

Brewster window:

Reflected ray

α
Incident ray Refracted ray

Brewster angle ‘’ satisfies the condition, tan = µ, Where µ is RI of the material.

Helium – Neon Laser

It consists of a discharge tube made of fused quartz, with a diameter of 1.5 cm and
of length nearly 1 m. The tube is filled with a mixture of He and Ne gases in the ratio 5:1,
at a total pressure of about 1 torr (1 mm of Hg). The tube has parallel mirrors, one of them
partly transparent, at both ends. The spacing of the mirrors is equal to an integral number of
half wavelengths of laser light.

9
 Fig: He-Ne energy level diagram

When a voltage of about 1000 V is applied across the two electrodes, a glow
discharge of the gases is initiated in the tube. The accelerated electrons collide with He
atoms, and it is a collision of first kind, wherein the He atoms are excited to two energy
levels 21S and 23S, which are metastable states of He. The atoms remains stay longer time
in 21S and 23S states.

e1 + He e2 + He*

For Ne gas, there is a close coincidence in energy between two of its excited states
5S and 3S with two metastable states of 21S and 23S in He atoms. When excited He atoms
collide with ground state Ne atoms, resonant energy transfer takes place between them. As
a result Ne atoms gets excited to 5S and 3S levels, and He atoms returns to ground state.
This is a collision of second kind.

He* + Ne Ne* + He

Thus the population of the 3S and 5S levels of the Ne increases rapidly which leads
to population inversion. Once population inversion is established between the higher states

10
(5S and 3S) with respect to lower states (3P and 2P respectively), laser action starts. And in
Neon, there are mainly three types of laser emission takes place.

1) Transitions from 5S level to 3P level give rise to radiation of wavelength 33912 Å,

which is in infra-red region.
2) Transitions from the 5S level to 2P level give rise to the visible radiation of
wavelength 6328 Å, which is red light (Most popular one).
3) Transitions from 3S level to 2P level giving rise to 11523 Å radiation which is also
in the infra-red region.

The atoms in the 1S level gets excited again to 5S and 3S levels by using external energy,
since 1S is a metastable state. And, or from 1S, Ne atoms returns to ground state by collision
with the walls of the tube.

The Brewster end windows allow light of one polarization to pass through without
any reflection losses. Because the electron impacts that excite the He and Ne atoms occur
all the time, a He-Ne laser operates continuously.

Characteristics of a laser beam

Laser light is characterized by

1. Directionality.
Laser light is highly directional and highly collimated beam of light.

2. Monochromaticity.
Laser light is characterized by a high degree of monochromatic.

Δλ = 10-7 Å
3. Coherence.
Laser light has high degree of coherence. There are two types of coherence,

11
 a) Temporal coherence
If we consider two waves in the same wavefront, and the difference between the
wavelengths of them is less, then the source is said to be highly temporal coherence. Since
laser light is highly monochromatic, it has a high temporal coherence.

b) Spatial coherence
Consider phase difference between two points in a wave at any time, separated by
some distance. If the phase difference between the same two points in a wave at later time,
separated by same distance is constant, then one can say that the light is highly spatially
coherent.

4. Light intensity.
Because of the phase correlation and high monochromaticity, the laser light is
more intense among all the known sources.

5. Focussability.
Since the laser light is highly monochromatic and also a highly collimated beam, it
can brought to a sharp focus by using lens. It is so sharp that, the diameter of the spot will
be close to the wavelength of the focused light.

Applications of Lasers
Lasers find remarkable applications in many fields.
1. Medicine: Eye surgery, cancer treatment, stomatology, plastic surgery, etc
2. Material processing: Welding, cutting, drilling etc
3. Communications: Optical fibers
4. Photography: Photography, holography
5. Others: Energy resource, defense, laser fusion, Measurement of pollutants in the
atmosphere, etc,.

12
Applications of LASERs
Mach-Zehnder interferometer
Interferometers are instruments that work on the principle of interference, which
involves the superposition of two or more waves to produce an interference pattern that can
be used to extract information about the original waves. Interferometers have been used to
study everything from the properties of light to the structure of molecules, and their
applications are still expanding.
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer is a type of interferometer that measures the
relative phase shift between two collimated light beams. It is also a beam division
interferometer based on amplitude, consisting of two beam splitters and two mirrors. In the
Mach-Zehnder interferometer, unlike the Michelson-Morley interferometer, each beam
follows a different path, and then recombines downstream of the second beam splitter.
However, the interference is still due to the coherent superposition of the two waves.
Moreover, aligning this interferometer can be more challenging than aligning the
Michelson-Morley interferometer because the Mach-Zehnder interferometer has two
separate paths for the light.

Figure 1: Mach-Zehnder interferometer

The incoming light is divided at the first beam splitter into two separate paths. Each
beam reflects off a mirror and then recombines at the end of the second beam splitter,
producing an interference pattern dependent on the phase difference between the two waves.
The phase difference, or equivalent optical path, can be intentionally introduced by slightly
modifying either one of the beam splitters or one of the mirrors to create a small asymmetry.

13
 The interference fringes will be generated, if there is a difference in the optical path
lengths of the two beams that is less than the coherence length of the light source. The
coherence length represents the distance over which the light waves maintain their phase
relationship.
When the difference in the optical path lengths of the two beams is within the
coherence length of the light source, the waves can still interfere constructively or
destructively, resulting in the formation of interference fringes. These fringes can be
observed as patterns of bright and dark bands in the interference pattern.
Since the coherence length of a light source can be extremely short, precision
components and careful alignment are crucial in the Mach-Zehnder interferometer to ensure
that the two beams have nearly identical optical path lengths. This precision is necessary to
maintain the visibility and clarity of the interference fringes.
By placing a sample in one of the beam paths, the resulting difference in the optical
path length due to the sample can be measured. This measurement is achieved by observing
the changes in the interference fringes. These changes provide valuable information about
the properties and characteristics of the sample being tested. The Mach-Zehnder
interferometer's ability to measure such small differences in optical path length makes it a
powerful tool in various scientific and engineering applications.

Phase change during beam propagation

The “outputs” of the Mach-Zehnder apparatus are two, one parallel to the incoming
beam and the other one is orthogonal.

Parallel output
The parallel output shows the two beams both arrive after having undergone two
reflections in each paths P1 and P2.

Figure 2: Detector 1

14
P1: first reflection from the beam splitter 1 (BS1) (π phase shift), second from mirror 1 (M1)
also (π phase shift) and transmission from beam splitter 2 (BS2): total = 2π phase shift
P2: transmission from BS1, first reflection from mirror 2 (M2) (π phase shift) and second
from BS2 (π phase shift): total = 2π phase shift
Both P1 and P2 arrive in phase having both accumulated a phase shift of 2π that
corresponds to one wavelength.

Orthogonal output
For the orthogonal output, one beam arrives after three reflections (O1), while the
other after a single reflection (O2).

Figure 3: Detector 2

O1: first reflection from BS1 (π phase shift), second from M1 (π phase shift), and third from
BS2 which gives 0 phase shift as it is reflected from the opposite other side of the beam
splitter
O2: transmission from BS1, single reflection from M2 (π phase shift) and second
transmission from BS2

Figure 4: Phase shift

15
 Both O1 and O2 beams are therefore out of phase with π. Therefore give rise to
destructive interference and no light can be detected at the second output. The outputs can
be viewed through detectors D1 and D2.

Applications of Mach-Zender Interferometer

The Mach-Zehnder interferometer has become the favored choice for flow
visualization studies due to its spacious and accessible working area and its flexibility in
locating fringes.
It is commonly used in the fields of plasma physics, aerodynamics, and heat transfer
to measure changes in temperature, density, and pressure in gases.
In addition, it is used in fiber-optic communication applications as electro-optic
modulators, which offer high-bandwidth electro-optic amplitude and phase responses over
a multiple-gigahertz frequency range. They are often incorporated in monolithic integrated
circuits.
Furthermore, it is used to investigate quantum entanglement, which is one of the
most counterintuitive predictions of quantum mechanics.
The Mach-Zehnder configuration is also favored in holographic interferometry due
to the ability to easily control the light features in the reference channel without disturbing
the object channel. Optical heterodyne detection using an off-axis, frequency-shifted
reference beam is particularly useful for shot-noise-limited holography, vibrometry, and
laser Doppler imaging of blood flow at video-rate cameras.

--------------------- The End ---------------

16
 Problems of Module 4
1. Find the ratio of population of the two energy states of the ruby laser the transition
between which is responsible for the emission of photons of wavelength 694.3 nm.
Assume the ambient temperature as 27 oC.
( E2 − E1 )
N2 − 1 1
=e kT
= ( E2 − E1 )
= hc
N1 kT kT
e e
1 1
= 6.6310 − 34 3108
= 69.2
= 8.82  10 −31.
−9
e
1.38210 − 23 300
e 694.310

2. Find the ratio of population of the two energy states of the Ruby laser, the transition
between which is responsible for the emission of photons of wavelength 6928 A.
Assume the ambient temperature is 18 oC.
( E2 − E1 )
N2 − 1 1
=e kT
= ( E2 − E1 )
= hc
N1 kT kT
e e
1
= 6.6310 − 34 3108
= 9.709  10 −32.
−10
1.38210 − 23 291
e 692810

3. Calculate the energy difference in eV between the two energy levels of the Ne atoms
of a He-Ne gas laser, the transition between which results in the emission of a light of
wavelength 632.8 nm. Also, estimate the number of photons emitted per second, if the
optical power output is 4.5 mW.
hc
Energy of the photon = E =

−34
6.62  10  3  10 8
= −9
= 3.143  10 −19 J
632.8  10
3.143  10 −19
= = 1.96 eV
1.602  10 −19
Energy of laser = E = P  t = 4.5  10 −3  1
= 4.5  10 −3 J
N  E = E
E
No. of photonsemitted per sec ( N ) =
E
4.5  10 −3
= −19
= 1.43  1016.
3.143  10

17
4. A pulsed laser emits photons of wavelength 780 nm with 20 mW average
power/pulse. Calculate the number of photons contained in each pulse, if the pulse
duration is 10 ns.
hc
Energy of the photon = E =

−34
6.62 10  3 10 8
= −9
= 2.55 10−19 J
780 10
Energy of laser pulse = E = P  t = 20 10−3 10−9
= 2 10−10 J
N  E = E
E
No. of photonsemitted per sec ( N ) =
E
2  10−10
= −19
= 7.86  108.
2.546  10

5. Calculate on the basis of Einstein's theory, the number of photons emitted per
second by a He-Ne laser source emitting light of wavelength 6328 A with an optical
power of 10 mW.
hc
Energy of the photon = E =

−34
6.62  10  3  10 8
= = 3.143  10 −19 J
6328 10 −10
Energy of laser = E = P  t = 10  10 −3  1
= 10  10 −3 J
N  E = E
E
No. of photonsemitted per sec ( N ) =
E
10  10 −3
= −19
= 3.182  1016.
3.143  10

6. A ruby laser emits pulses of 20 ns duration with average power/pulse is 0.1 MW. If
the number of photons in each pulse is 6.981×1015. Calculate the wavelength of
photons.
Energy of laser pulse = E = P  t
= 0.1106  20 10−9 = 2 10−3 J
N  E = E
E hc
E = (sin ce E = )
N 

18
 ℎ×𝑐 𝐸
=
𝜆 𝑁
ℎ × 𝑐 × 𝑁 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 × 6.981 × 1015
∴𝜆= =
𝐸 2 × 10−3
= 6943 Å.

7. The transition to the ground state from upper state and lower energy states in a ruby
laser results in emission of photons of wavelengths 6928 A and 6943 A respectively.
Estimate the energy values of the two energy levels in eV and also their ratio of
populations. Given T = 270C. Assume ground state energy = 0.
ℎ × 𝑐 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
𝐸2 = = = 2.867 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆2 6928 × 10−10
2.867 × 10−19
= = 1.7894𝑒𝑉.
1.602 × 10−19
ℎ × 𝑐 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
𝐸1 = = = 2.8604 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆1 6943 × 10−10
2.8604 × 10−19
= = 1.786𝑒𝑉.
1.602 × 10−19
(𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 0.0034𝑒𝑉 = 0.0034 × 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽)
𝑁2 (𝐸2 −𝐸1 ) 1 1
= 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑇 = (𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
= 0.0034×1.602×10−19
𝑁1
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 1.382×10−23 ×300
= 0.878.

8. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of which upper one corresponds to
a metastable state is 1.059×10-30. Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330 K.
𝑁2 𝑁1 1 × 1030
= 1.059 × 10−30 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑒 = )
𝑁1 𝑁2 1.059
𝑁2 ℎ𝑐 𝑁1 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑘𝑇 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 )
𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑁1 ℎ×𝑐
∴ 𝑙𝑛( )=
𝑁2 𝜆 × 𝑘𝑇
ℎ×𝑐 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
𝜆= =
𝑁 1 × 1030
𝑙𝑛( 𝑁1 ) × 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛( ) × 1.382 × 10−23 × 330
2 1.059
= 6324 Å.
--------------------- The End ---------------

19
 Optical fibers

Introduction:

The first experimental proof that light could be guided was given by John Tyndall
nearly 120 years ago. The first glass fabrics were made in the 1920’s. But the concept of
cladding is introduced in 1950. Optical fiber communication is mainly because of the
inversion of lasers by Maiman in 1960. The optical frequencies are of the order of 5x10 14
Hz as compared to electrical communication frequencies which are about 1010 Hz. So there
is a increase in the signal strength. At the early time some of the best optical glasses had
attenuations of the order of several thousand dB/km. For practical, communication is
possible only when the attenuation could be of the order of 20 dB/km or less.

By 1970, the workers of corning glass work produced the first optical fiber with loss
under 20 dB/km. By 1979, the fiber loss was brought down to just 0.2 dB/km.

The first fiber optical communication was installed in Chicago, in 1977. A 24 –

fiber optical cable less than 2.5 cm diameter in size was employed to carry 16,000 voice
circuits to serve them. Around 1980, in USA alone more than 3 million kilometers of optical
fibers were laid to replace electrical communication across the country and the decade 1980
is referred to as decade of glass.

The fiber optics communication is also known as light wave communication or

photonics.

Photonics is the enabling technology for optical fiber communication to improve its
performance and to reduce its cost.

20
Optical fibers construction:

Optical fibers are essentially light guides used in optical communications as wave
guides. They are transparent dielectrics and able to guide visible and infrared light over
long distances.

An optical fiber is made of mainly two parts. One is the inner cylindrical material
made of glass or plastic called the core. The outer part is called the cladding which envelops
the inner core as a concentric cylinder. The cladding is also made of similar material but of
lesser refractive index. There is a material continuity between core and cladding. The
cladding is enclosed in polyurethane jacket.

Optical fibers as waveguides:

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be

guided in the form of waves. Since light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called
light guide. It is also called fiber wave guide or fiber light guide.

21
 The cladding has always lower refractive index than that of core. The light signal
which enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and cladding only at larger
angle of incidence. The light signal undergoes multiple reflections. Since each reflection
is a total internal reflection, the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself
completely within the core during propagation. Thus, the optical fiber functions as a wave
guide.
If the fiber has sharp bends, then there is no total internal reflection occurs, so signal
fails to come out from the fiber.

Total internal reflection:

When a light travel from denser medium to rarer medium and the angle of incidence
is greater than critical angle, the total internal reflection takes place.

From Snell’s law

n1sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
At critical angle θ1 = θc and θ2 = 90°
∴n1sin θc = n2 sin 90 = n2

n 
or θc= sin -1  2 
 n1 
In case of total internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy
at the reflecting surface.

22
Numerical aperture and Ray propagation in the fiber:

Let us consider the special case of a ray which suffers critical incidence at the core
cladding interface. Let ‘AO’ be the incident ray, entering to the core at an angle ‘θo’ with
the fiber axis. Let it be refracted along OB at an angle θ1 in the core, and further proceed to
fall at critical angle of incidence (90 – θ1) at B on the interface between core and cladding.
Since it is a critical angle of incidence, the ray is refracted at 90° to the normal drawn to the
interface i.e., it grazes along BC.

If the angle of incidence is less than ‘θo’ then, the ray will gets total internal
reflections. And the rays with incidence are greater than ‘θo’ will not take total internal
reflection. Therefore the incident rays which are within the cone AOA’ will get total
internal reflections.
The angle ‘θo’ is called the waveguide acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half
– angle, and ‘sinθo’ is called the numerical aperture (N A) of the fiber. The numerical
aperture represents the light – gathering capability of the optical fiber.

Condition for propagation:

Let no, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core of the fiber
and cladding respectively.

Now, for refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the core, we have by
applying the Snell’s law that,
no sinθo = n1 sin θ1
At the point B on the interface, the angle of incidence = 90 – θ1.

23
 ∴ Again applying Snell’s law, we have,

n1 sin (90 – θ1) = n2 sin 90

or n1 cosθ1 = n2

n2
or cosθ1 = --------------------(2)
n1

n1 n1 1
from (1), Sinθo = sin 1 = (1 − cos2  1 ) 2
n0 n0

n1 n2 n n12 − n22 n12 − n22

or sinθo = 1 − 22 = 1 =
n0 n1 n0 n12 no

If the medium surrounding the fiber in air, then no = 1

Or sin θo = n12 − n 22

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate

If θi < θo or Sinθi < sin θo

or sin θi < n12 − n22

Thus the condition for propagation is sin θ i < N A

Fractional index change (Δ):

The fractional index change Δ is the ratio of the refractive index difference of the
core and cladding to the refractive index of core of an optical fiber.

(n1 − n2 )
∴Δ= --------------- (3)
n1

24
Types of optical fibers and modes of transmission:

In any optical fiber, the whole material of the cladding has a uniform refractive index
value. But the refractive index of the core materials may either remains constant or
subjected to variation in a particular way. The curve which represents the variation of
refractive index with respect to the radial distance from the axis of the fiber is called
refractive index profile. The optical fibers are classified under three categories based on
geometry, refractive index profile and the number of modes that the fiber can guide.

a) single mode fiber

b) step-index multimode fiber
c) Graded index multimode fiber.

a) Single mode fiber:

Fig: single mode fiber

25
 A single mode fiber has a core material of uniform refractive index value. Similarly
cladding also has a material of uniform refractive index but of lesser value. This results in
a sudden increase in the value of refractive index from cladding to core. Thus its refractive
index profile takes the shape of a step. The diameter value of the core is about 8 to 10 μm.
Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in fig. Hence it is called
single mode fiber.
Single mode fibers are the most extensively used ones and they constitute 80% of
all fibers that are manufactured in the world today. They need Lasers as the source of light.
Though less expensive, it is very difficult to splice (join) them. They find particular
application in submarine cable system.

b) Step – index multimode fiber:

Fig. Step index multi mode fiber

Here core has larger diameter, so it is possible to propagate a large number of modes
as shown in fig. Its refractive index profile is similar to that of a single mode fiber but with
a larger plane region for the core.

26
 The step-index multimode fiber can accept either a laser or an LED as source of
light. It is the least expensive of all. Its typical application is in data links which has lower
band width requirements.

c) Graded – index multimode fiber:

Fig.: Graded index multi mode fiber

It is also called GRIN. The geometry of GRIN is same as that of step index
multimode fiber. Its core material has a special feature that its refractive index value
decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis and becomes equal to that of the
cladding at the interface. But the Refractive index of cladding remains constant. Either a
Laser or LED can be the source for the GRIN multimode fiber. It is most expensive of all.
Its splicing could be done with some difficulty. Its typical application is the telephone trunk
between central offices.

27
Modes of propagation:

V – number:
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V – number and is given by

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 (𝑁 𝐴)
𝑉= or 𝑉=
𝜆 𝑛0 𝜆 𝑛0

for v >>1, the number of modes supported by the fiber (approximately) is given by
V2
Number of Modes ≈
2
here d ⇒ core diameter
λ ⇒ wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

Attenuation:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is
called attenuation. It is also called the fiber loss.

− 10 P 
= log10  out  dB / km
L  Pin 
Where L is in km and Pin & Pout are expressed in w

The three mechanism through which attenuation takes place are

1. Absorption 2. Scattering 3. Radiation losses

1. Absorption:
In this case, the loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons associated with
signal. Photons are absorbed.
a) By impurities in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
b) By intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.

2. Scattering Losses:
While the signal travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered because of sharp
changes in refractive index values inside the glass (non – crystalline) over long distances.

28
 The sharp variation in refractive index value inside the fiber glass is induced by
localized structural in homogeneity in the material.

Scattered Photon

Scattering Center

3. Radiation losses:
Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends.
a) Macroscopic bends: This refers to bends having radii that are large as compared to
the fiber diameter, such as ones which occur while turning it around a corner.

Escaping ray

b) Microscopic bends: These are repetitive small-scale fluctuations in the linearity of

the fiber axis. Microscopic bending occurs due to non - uniformities in the
manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the
cabling of the fiber.

Escaping ray
Applications of fiber optics:
1. Fiber – optic communication.
2. Fiber – optic endoscope:
3. Optical fibers are used as sensing device.
4. Optical fibers are used for data link purpose.
5. Local Area Networks (LAN):

29
Applications of fiber optics:

1. Fiber optic temperature sensor

Principle: It is based on the principle of interference between the beams emerging out from
the reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.
Description: It consists of a Laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of glass plate
is inclined at an angle 450 with respect to the direction of the laser beam.

Fig. Fiber optic temperature sensor.

Two fibers viz,
• Reference fiber which is isolated from the environment
• Test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed, are placed as shown in the figure.
Separate lens systems are provided to split and to collect the beam.
Working:
1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.
2. The beam splitter kept at an angle 450 inclination divides the beam emerging from
the laser source into two beams (i) main beam and (ii) splitted beam, exactly at right
angles to each other.
3. The main beam passes through the lens L1 and is focused onto the reference fiber
which is isolated from the environment to be sensed.
4. The beam after passing through the reference fiber then falls on the Lens L2.
5. The splitted beam passes through the Lens L3 and is focused onto the test fiber kept
in the environment to be sensed.
6. The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is made to fall on lens L2.
7. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a path difference due to
change in parameters such as pressure, temperature etc in the environment.

30
 8. Therefore, a path difference is produced between two beams causing the interference
pattern as shown in the figure.
9. Thus, the change in pressure or temperature can be accurately measured with the
help of the interference pattern obtained.

2. Fiber optic displacement sensor (extrinsic sensor)

Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving target. The
reflected light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity of light
reflected from its displacement of the target is measured.
Description:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a bundle
of receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure.
The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the moving
target can be adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.

Fig. Fiber optic displacement sensor.

Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made to
fall on the moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the
receiving fiber and the same is detected by the detector. Based on the intensity of the light
received, the displacement of the target can be measured, (i.e.) if the received intensity is
more than we can say that the target is moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less,
we can say that the target is moving away from the sensor.

--------------------- The End ---------------

31
 Problems of Module 4

9. Calculate the numerical aperture of a given optical fiber if the refractive indices of
core and cladding are 1.623 and 1.522 respectively.

N . A (sin( o )) = n12 − n22 = 1.6232 − 1.5222

= 0.564.

10. Calculate the numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and the critical angle of the
fiber having core refractive index = 1.50 and the cladding refractive index = 1.45.
n2 1.45
Critical angle( c ) = sin −1 ( ) = sin −1 ( ) = 75.2 o
n1 1.50
N . A (sin( o )) = n12 − n22 = 1.50 2 − 1.452 = 0.384
( o ) = sin −1 ( n12 − n22 ) = sin −1 (0.384) = 22.85o

11. An optical fiber has cladding of refractive index 1.50 and numerical aperture 0.39.
Find the refractive index of the core and acceptance angle.

sin 0 = n12 − n22

(sin o2 ) = n12 − n22
n12 = (sin o2 ) + n22 = 0.392 + 1.52 = 1.55

 0 = sin −1 ( n12 − n22 )

= sin −1 ( 1.552 − 1.52 ) = 22.98o.

12. An optical fiber has a core material with refractive index 1.55 and its cladding
material has a refractive index of 1.5. The light is launched into it in air. Calculate its
N.A, Angle of acceptance, critical angle and fractional refractive index change.

n2 1.5
Critical angle( c ) = sin −1 ( ) = sin −1 ( ) = 75.40o
n1 1.55
N . A (sin( o )) = n12 − n22 = 1.552 − 1.5 2 = 0.39
( o ) = sin −1 ( n12 − n22 ) = sin −1 (0.39) = 23o
n1 − n2 1.55 − 1.5
= = = 0.032.
n1 1.55

32
13. A glass clad fiber is made with core glass refractive index 1.5 and cladding is doped
to give a fractional index difference of 0.0005. Determine 1) Cladding index 2) Critical
internal reflection angle 3) External critical acceptance angle and 4) Numerical
aperture.
n1 − n2
=
n1
n1   = n1 − n 2
n2 = n1 − n1   = n1 (1 − )
= 1.5(1 − 0.0005) = 1.499.
n 1.499
 c = sin −1 ( 2 ) = sin −1 ( ) = 87.9 o.
n1 1.5
 0 = sin −1 ( n12 − n22 ) = sin −1 ( 1.5 2 − 1.4992 )
= 2.72 0.
sin  0 = n12 − n22 = 1.5 2 − 1.4992 = 0.0474.

14. The Numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when surrounded by air.
Determine the refractive index of its core given the refractive index of the cladding is
1.59. Also find the acceptance angle when the fiber in water. Assume the refractive
index of water as 1.33.

n12 − n22
(N . A)air = (sin ce n0 = 1 for air)
n0

(
0.2 = n12 − 1.592 or 0.2 = n12 − 1.592 )
2

0.04 = n12 − 2.581

 n1 = 1.6.
n12 − n22
(N . A)water = (sin ce n0 = 1.33 for water)
n0
0 .2
= = 0.1504
1.33
N . A = sin  0
 0 = sin −1 ( N . A) = sin −1 (0.1504) = 8.65o.

33
15. An optic glass fiber of RI = 1.450 is to be clad with another glass to ensure
internal reflection that will contain light traveling within 50 of the fiber axes. What
maximum index of refraction is allowed for cladding.
Given, RI of core = n1 = 1.450
Angle between the ray and the fiber axis = 50
RI of cladding n2 = ?
Angle of incidence at the core-cladding interface = 850
 n1Sin 1 = n2 Sin 90
1.45 Sin 850 = n2
or n2 = 1.444

 If n2 is 1.444, the refracted ray grazes the interface. The ray suffers total internal
reflection for n2 < 1.444.  The maximum index of refraction allowed for cladding should
be < 1.444.

16. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30 degree when kept in air. Find the
angle of acceptance when it is in medium of refractive index 1.33

n12 − n22
(sin  0 )air = (sin ce n0 = 1 for air )
n0
0.5 = n12 − n22 ( sin ce  0 = 30 deg)
when the surrounding medium is air then
n12 − n 22
(sin  )|
0 m ed = |
(sin ce n0| = 1.33 for medium)
n 0

 n2 − n2 
Angle of accep tan ce  0| = sin −1  1 | 2 
 n0 
 
 0.5 
= sin −1   = 22 .
o

 1.33 

17. Calculate the V-number for a fiber of core diameter 40 μm and with refractive
indices of 1.55 and 1.5 respectively for core and cladding when the wavelength of the
propagating wave is 1400 nm. Also calculate the number of modes that the fiber can
support for propagation. Given n0 =1

34
    d  n2 − n2 
V − number =  1 2 
  
 
   40 10−6  1.552 − 1.52 
=  = 35
 1400  10 −9 
 
(sin ce V  1, No of mod es = V 2 / 2)
V 2 352
 No. of mod es = = = 612.
2 2
18. Find the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m, when a light signal of
power 100 mw emerges out of the fiber with a power 90 mw.
Length of the optical fiber L = 500 m = 0.5 km
Input power of the signal, Pin = 100 mw = 100 x 10-3 w
Output power of the signal, Pout = 90 mw = 90 x 10-3 w
Attenuation  = ?
− 10 P 
= log10  out  db/km
L  Pin 
− 10  90 
= log10  
0.5  100 
 = 0.915 db/km

19. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6 dB/km. What fraction of its
initial intensity remains after i) 1 km, ii) after 3 km ?
Attenuation  = 3.6 dB/km
 Pout 
  = ? after 1 km and 3 km
 Pin 
 L 
− 10 P   P   L   Pout  − 
We have  = log10  out   log10  out  = −      =10  10 
L  Pin   Pin   10   Pin 
At the end of 1 km distance L = 1 km
 3.61 
 Pout  − 
  =10  10 
= 0.436
 Pin 
At the end of 3 km distance L = 3 km
 3.63 
 Pout  − 
  =10  10 
= 0.0832
 Pin 
--------------------- The End ---------------

35