ALGERIAN PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Kasdi Merbah University
Faculty of Hydrocarbons, Renewable Energies, Earth and Universe
Sciences
Hydrocarbons Production Department

General geology
for 2 second year of a professional production license program

by:
[Link] Abdeldjebar
touahriaaldjebar@[Link]

2023-2024
Contents

1 Rocks 2
1.1 Ignous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Identification and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Mineralogical Composition and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Origin of Magmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Types of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1 Rocks
A rock is a naturally occurring, solid, and consolidated substance composed of minerals, mineraloids,
or organic materials. Rocks can vary in size from tiny pebbles to massive mountains and can be found
on the Earth’s surface, underground, or even on other celestial bodies like the Moon and Mars. They
are typically formed through geological processes, including the cooling and solidification of molten
magma or lava, the compaction and cementation of sediments, or the alteration of pre-existing rocks
through heat, pressure, and chemical reactions.
Rocks are classified into three main types based on their formation processes:
1. Igneous Rocks: These rocks originate from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or
lava. They include rocks like Granite (formed from slowly cooling magma) and Basalt (formed
from rapidly cooling lava).
2. Metamorphic Rocks : Metamorphic rocks are formed when pre-existing rocks, either ig-
neous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks, undergo profound changes in temperature,
pressure, or mineral composition. Common metamorphic rocks include Marble (from lime-
stone) and Schist (from shale).

3. Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation, compaction, and ce-
mentation of mineral and organic particles, such as sand, clay, and organic debris. Examples
include Sandstone, Shale, and Limestone.

Figure 1: Rock cycle [2]

Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up about 95% of the volume of the Earth’s lithosphere.
While sedimentary rocks constitute only 5% of the Earth’s crust, they make up 75% of the rocks
that are exposed at the surface [3]. They are primarily composed, like other rocks, of silicates. Only
a small proportion is made up of carbonates and evaporites. These three categories of rocks form a
closed cycle within the Earth’s crust (Figure 6).

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1.1 Ignous Rocks
Igneous rocks result from the crystallization of molten magma, which originates deep within the
Earth. They have various properties that can be of interest, including their potential to host
hydrocarbons. This paper discusses the identification, classification, and mineralogical composition
of igneous rocks.

1.1.1 Identification and Classification

Igneous rocks are primarily composed of interlocking silicate crystals. The recognition and classifi-
cation criteria are based on the texture and the nature and proportions of minerals.

1.1.2 Texture
The texture of igneous rocks refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains or crystals
within the rock. Igneous rock textures can vary widely depending on factors such as cooling rate,
mineral composition, and the presence of gases
.Coarse-grained texture: In intrusive igneous rocks, which form beneath the Earth’s surface
from slowly cooling magma, the cooling process is relatively slow. This allows for the growth of
relatively large mineral crystals. Examples include Granite and Diorite.
.Medium-grained texture: A few large crystals appear surrounded by a mass of smaller
crystals, indicating relatively rapid cooling at a shallower depth.
.Fine-grained texture (microlithic): Shows a few large crystals surrounded by a homoge-
neous mass of very small crystals encased in a glassy envelope. Cooling occurred...
.Glassy texture: No visible crystals; in cases where lava cools extremely rapidly, it may form
a glassy texture. This occurs when there is insufficient time for mineral crystals to grow. Obsidian
is an example of a glassy igneous rock.

1.1.3 Mineralogical Composition and Classification

Igneous rocks are categorized based on their silica content and mineral composition (see table 1):
Felsic Rocks: High silica content, mainly quartz and feldspar as Granite and Rhyolite.
Intermediate Rocks:Moderate silica content, primarily feldspars as Diorite and Andesite.
Mafic Rocks: Lower silica content, dominated by pyroxenes, olivines, and calcic plagioclase as
Basalt and Gabbro.
Ultramafic Rocks: Extremely low silica content.
Table 1: Igneous rock classification [4]
Classification Silica Content Predominant Minerals Examples
Felsic Rocks High (>65% SiO2) Quartz, Feldspar Granite, Rhyolite
Intermediate Rocks Moderate (52%-65% SiO2) Feldspar Diorite, Andesite
Mafic Rocks Low (45%-52% SiO2) Pyroxenes, Olivines Basalt, Gabbro
Ultramafic Rocks Very Low (<45% SiO2) Predominantly Mafic Komatiite, Dunite

1.1.4 Origin of Magmas

Among the rocks resulting from the solidification of magma, volcanic rocks are distinguished, which
solidified at the Earth’s surface, and plutonic rocks, which crystallized at depth. Basaltic magmas
have a deep origin, while acidic granite magmas originate from the melting of crustal rocks.

1.2 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism is a geological process that involves the alteration of pre-existing rocks (either sedi-
mentary, igneous, or other metamorphic rocks) due to changes in temperature, pressure, and chemical
conditions, typically deep within the Earth’s crust. This process results in the formation of new
minerals, changes in mineral composition and the development of distinct textures and structures

3
within the rocks. Metamorphism occurs without melting the rocks and often leads to the recrys-
tallization of minerals and the development of foliation (layering or alignment of mineral grains) in
some cases.

Figure 2: Pressure-Temperature metamorphism diagram [1]

Metamorphism can be caused by a variety of geological processes, including tectonic plate move-
ments, burial beneath sedimentary layers, and the intrusion of hot magma. The intensity of meta-
morphism can range from low-grade (relatively low temperatures and pressures) to high-grade (high
temperatures and pressures), and it can produce a wide range of metamorphic rocks, such as slate,
schist, gneiss, and marble. These rocks often exhibit unique mineral assemblages and structures that
are distinct from the original rock from which they formed. Metamorphic processes are fundamental
to understanding the geological history and evolution of Earth’s crust.

1.2.1 Types of Metamorphism

1. Regional Metamorphism: Regional metamorphism results in large metamorphic regions,
often seen in mountain chains (general dynamic metamorphism during nappe thrusting) and
ancient continental blocks. This type of metamorphism typically involves an increase in tem-
perature and pressure due to burial, leading to high temperatures controlled by the depth in
the Earth’s crust or mantle, as well as deformation recording tectonic structures.
2. Cataclastic Metamorphism : Cataclastic metamorphism, also known as dynamic metamor-
phism, is highly localized and linked to stresses developed along major brittle faults. Rocks
acquire schistosity and are crushed to varying degrees, transforming due to high pressure and
low temperature conditions.
3. Contact Metamorphism: Contact metamorphism occurs in the surrounding rocks adjacent
to intrusive igneous formations (hot magma intrusions). This involves "cooking" the rocks in
direct contact with or near the intrusion, leading to a metamorphic aureole of varying width
when the intrusion’s volume is substantial.
This type of metamorphism is mainly due to an increase in temperature and is also referred
to as thermometamorphism.
4. Shock Metamorphism Shock metamorphism, or impact metamorphism, is unrelated to
other types. It results from high-velocity impacts of large meteorites on Earth’s surface.

4
 Extreme shock effects can produce dense minerals that typically form in the mantle. Shock
metamorphism is observed in meteorites, indicating its occurrence before their impact on
Earth. It’s likely due to cosmic impacts on the parent body of the meteorite.
5. Hydrothermal Metamorphism Hydrothermal metamorphism results from the interaction
between a rock and a high-temperature fluid. The compositional difference between the rock
and fluid triggers a series of metamorphic and metasomatic reactions.
Hydrothermal fluids can originate from magma, groundwater, or oceanic water. Circulating
hydrothermal fluids in oceanic basalts lead to extensive hydrothermal metamorphism near
mid-ocean ridges and other submarine volcanic areas. The fluids ultimately escape through
seafloor vents known as "black smokers."

1.3 Sedimentary Rocks

If igneous rocks make up the bulk of the Earth’s crust in terms of volume, sedimentary rocks
constitute the majority of the crust’s surface. Four processes lead to the formation of sed-
imentary rocks: superficial alteration of materials that produces particles through physical,
chemical, and biological processes; the transport of these particles by watercourses, wind,
or glaciers that carries them to deposition environments; sedimentation, during which these
particles settle and accumulate in specific environments to form sediment; and ultimately,
diagenesis, a process that transforms the sediment into sedimentary rock.

Figure 3: Sedimentary rocks processes

Sedimentary material can originate from three sources: terrigenous source, where particles
come from the erosion of the continent; allochemical source, where particles originate within
the sedimentary basin, mainly from shells or shell fragments of organisms; and orthochemical
source, which corresponds to chemical precipitates within the sedimentary basin or within the
sediment during diagenesis. Surface weathering processes can be classified into three(3) types:
mechanical, chemical, and biological.
Mechanical processes are those that physically break down the rock, such as the action of
freeze-thaw cycles where the expansion of freezing water in fractures gradually opens them.
The mechanical action of tree roots can also open fractures.
Chemical weathering is significant: several silicates, like feldspars, commonly found in igneous

5
rocks, are easily attacked by rainwater and transformed into clay minerals (phyllosilicates) to
form mud.
Some organisms have the ability to biologically attack minerals. Certain lichens extract the
chemical elements they need from minerals. The combined action of these three mechanisms
produces particles of various sizes. This is the starting point of the general sedimentation
process.
Transport, Apart from wind and glaciers, water is the primary agent for transporting particles.
depending on the mode and energy of transport, the resulting sediment will exhibit various
sedimentary structures: planar, inclined, or cross-bedded stratification, grain sorting, various
markings at the top of layers, etc.
Sedimentary rocks inherit these structures, the transport of particles can be lengthy and ulti-
mately, all particles need to end up in oceanic basins.
Sedimentation; all the transported material accumulates in a sedimentary basin, eventually
a marine basin, to form a deposit. Sediments settle in successive layers, varying over time
in composition, particle size, color, etc., based on the nature of the brought sediments. This
stratification is what makes sedimentary deposits layered, contributing to the stratified land-
scapes like those in the Grand Canyon of Colorado, for example.
Diagenesis: the formation of a sedimentary rock occurs through the transformation of sedi-
ment into rock via diagenesis, it encompasses all chemical and mechanical processes that affect
a sedimentary deposit after its formation. Diagenesis begins on the seafloor, in the case of
marine sediments, and continues as the deposit is buried beneath other sediments, progres-
sively reaching depths of tens, hundreds, or even thousands of meters. Diagenetic processes
are diverse and complex, ranging from sediment compaction to cementation, involving phases
of dissolution, recrystallization, or replacement of certain minerals.
The primary diagenetic process responsible for the transition from sediment to rock is cemen-
tation. This is a relatively straightforward process: if water circulating through a sediment,
such as sand, is oversaturated with respect to certain minerals, it precipitates these minerals
within the pores of the sand, binding the sand particles together. This results in a sedimentary
rock known as sandstone. The degree of cementation can vary, leading to either a friable rock
or a very solid one. Cementation can occur early in the sediment’s diagenetic history, on the
seafloor (early diagenesis), or it may require burial beneath several hundred or even a few
thousand meters of material (late diagenesis).
The induration (cementation) of a sediment can occur either early in its diagenetic history,
before the accumulation of several meters of sediment (pre-compaction), or later when pressure
on the particles is high due to the accumulation of sediments.
In the case of pre-compaction cementation (top diagram), fluids circulating within the sediment
precipitate chemicals that bind the particles together. For example, calcite precipitates onto
the particles of sand and eventually binds them together. Sediment compaction (bottom
diagram) can also lead to cementation. Thus, the high pressure exerted at the contact points
between quartz particles in a sand causes local quartz dissolution, fluid oversaturation with
respect to silica, and silica precipitation on the particle surfaces, cementing them together.
The nomenclature of sediments and sedimentary rocks follows a two-step process. First, it’s
based on the size of particles (granulometry) in terrigenous and alchemical sediments. Two
particle sizes are significant to remember: 0.062 mm and 2 mm. Granulometry isn’t applicable
to ortho-chemical sediments, as they involve chemical precipitates rather than transported
particles.
Next, the classification is further refined based on mineralogical composition. The composition
of terrigenous particles mainly consists of quartz, feldspar, rock fragments (pieces of ancient
rocks released by erosion), and clay minerals (for example, the sands on New England beaches
consist primarily of quartz particles with a small amount of feldspar). As for allochemical
sediments, they are primarily composed of limestone, reflected by the CAL suffix in the name.
The particles in allochemical sediments are largely composed of shells or shell fragments from

6
organisms (calcite or aragonite). Sediments in tropical zones are mainly composed of these
shells, such as the white sands on southern beaches! In the case of orthochemical sediments,
the name is primarily determined based on chemical composition.

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References
[1] earth learning idea. earth learning idea, [Link] [Link], 8, 2023.
[2] GeeksforGeeks. Rock cycle, [Link] Accessed on
September 8, 2023.
[3] J.F. Raoult, A. Foucault, B. Platevoet, and F. Cecca. Dictionnaire de géologie. Dunod,
2020.
[4] Wikipedia. Igneous rock, [Link] ock, september8, 2023.