Module-4 Environmental pollution and human health

Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances or forms of energy into the environment,
such as air, water or soil, which makes it dirty, unsafe and harmful for living organisms. It can
be caused by activities like industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, improper waste disposal and
excessive noise and it negatively affects human health, wildlife and natural ecosystems by
contaminating resources and disturbing the balance of nature.
• An average human requires about 12 kg of air each day, which is nearly 12 to 15 times
greater than the amount of food we eat.
• Thus, even a small concentration of pollutants in the air becomes more significant in
comparison to the similar levels present in food
Pollutants

Pollutants are harmful substances or agents that cause pollution by contaminating the air,
water and soil and making the environment unsafe for living beings. They can be natural or
man-made and include things like smoke, chemicals, plastic waste, sewage and toxic gases.
Pollutants can be solid, liquid or gaseous in form and they damage human health, harm plants
and animals and disturb the natural balance of ecosystems.

• Degradable: These can be rapidly broken down by natural processes. Ex: domestic
sewage, discarded vegetables etc.
• Slowly degradable: Pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in an
unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Ex: DDT and most plastics.
• Non-degradable: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are
released into the environment, they are difficult to eradicate and continue to
accumulate. Ex: toxic elements like lead or mercury

Air pollution
Air pollution is the contamination of the air by harmful substances such as gases, smoke, dust
and chemicals that make it unsafe for humans, animals and plants. It is mainly caused by
activities like burning fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, industrial smoke and construction dust.
• Each year, air pollution kills nearly seven million people worldwide, according to the
World Health Organization (WHO)

History of air pollution

• Air pollution began when humans started using firewood for cooking and heating.
• Hippocrates (400 BC) was among the first to mention air pollution.
• Widespread use of coal increased air pollution, especially in cities.
• Smoke pollution in London was recognized as a problem about 700 years ago.
 • In 1273, King Edward I introduced the first anti-pollution law, restricting coal use.
• A second law banning coal was passed in 1300, with strict penalties.
• The London Smog of 1952 caused over 4,000 deaths, marking a major air-pollution
disaster

Sources of Air Pollution

Primary pollutants are those pollutants that are emitted directly into the atmosphere from
identifiable sources such as vehicles, industries and burning of fuels.
Examples: carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate
matter (dust, smoke) and hydrocarbons.

Secondary pollutants are those pollutants that are not emitted directly but are formed in the
atmosphere through chemical reactions between primary pollutants.
Examples: sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), carbonic acid (H2CO3), ozone (O3), and
photochemical smog.

Type of particulates

Term Meaning Examples

Dust Solid particles blown into air or Dust storms

produced by grinding

Smoke Particles/gas from combustion Cigarette smoke, burning

garbage

Fume Formed by condensation of Zinc/lead fumes

metal vapors

Fog Consisting of water droplets Morning fog

Smog Mixture of smoke and fog Urban smog

What happens to pollutants in the atmosphere?
Pollutants in the atmosphere do not remain unchanged; they undergo several processes that
influence their behaviour and effects. They can be dispersed by wind and spread over large
areas or chemically transformed into secondary pollutants through reactions with sunlight,
oxygen and water vapor (for example, forming ozone and acids). Pollutants are also removed
from the atmosphere through dry deposition, where particles and gases settle directly onto the
ground, buildings or plants, and wet deposition, where pollutants are washed out of the air by
rain, snow or fog (often leading to acid rain). Some pollutants may also accumulate in the
atmosphere, increasing their concentration and causing greater harm to human health and the
environment.

Effects of air pollution on living organisms

Air pollution has serious impacts on human health. It can cause respiratory problems like
asthma, bronchitis and lung infections, as well as heart diseases. Long-term exposure may
lead to reduced lung function, irritation of eyes and throat and even premature death.
• Nose hair filters out large air particles.
• Sticky mucus traps smaller particles and gaseous pollutants.
• Sneezing and coughing help expel pollutants from the respiratory tract.
• Long-term exposure or smoking can damage natural defense mechanisms.
• Air pollution can cause lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis.
• Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and respiratory patients are most vulnerable
• Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide.
• Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause
collapse, coma and even death.

Pollutants damage plant leaves and reduce photosynthesis, which affects growth. Air pollution
can cause yellowing of leaves, stunted growth, and lower crop yields. Acid rain also harms soil
quality and plant health.
• Damages leaf tissues and reduces chlorophyll content
• Decreases photosynthesis and plant growth
• Causes leaf injury, discoloration and premature leaf fall
• Pollutants like SO2 and ozone affect crop yield and quality
• Weakens plants, making them more susceptible to diseases and pests

Animals suffer from similar health issues as humans, including breathing problems and
diseases. Pollutants can enter the food chain, affecting wildlife and livestock and may lead to
poisoning or death.
Composition and Structure of the atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases, mainly:

• Nitrogen (N₂) – about 78%

• Oxygen (O₂) – about 21%
• Argon (Ar) – about 0.93%
• Carbon dioxide (CO₂) – about 0.04%

Other Components

• Water vapour – varies (0–4%), important for weather and climate

• Trace gases – neon, helium, methane, ozone, etc.
• Dust and particles – smoke, pollen, and pollutants

Structure

1. Troposphere (0–12 km)

• Lowest layer where we live

• Contains most of the air and water vapour
• Weather phenomena (rain, clouds, storms) occur here

2. Stratosphere (12–50 km)

• Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful UV rays

• Air is more stable; aircraft often fly here

3. Mesosphere (50–85 km)

• Meteors burn up in this layer

• Coldest layer of the atmosphere

4. Thermosphere (85–600 km)

• Very high temperatures

• Contains ionosphere (important for radio communication)
• Auroras (northern/southern lights) occur here

5. Exosphere (above 600 km)

• Outermost layer
• Very thin air; merges into outer space
• Satellites orbit the Earth here
Effects of air pollution on the stratosphere
Air pollution affects the stratosphere mainly by damaging the ozone layer, which protects life
on Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), halons and other ozone-depleting substances rise into the stratosphere, where they
release chlorine and bromine atoms that break down ozone molecules. This leads to thinning
of the ozone layer (ozone depletion), allowing more UV rays to reach the Earth’s surface, which
can cause skin cancer, eye damage and harm to plants and marine life. Additionally, changes
in the stratosphere can disturb temperature balance and affect global climate patterns.
CFCs + UV rays → release chlorine → chlorine destroys ozone repeatedly → ozone layer
becomes thinner
Effect of Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion allows more harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun to reach the Earth’s
surface, increasing overall radiation exposure.
• Increased risk of skin cancer
• Eye damage such as cataracts
• Weakened immune system
• Sunburn and skin aging
• Reduced photosynthesis
• Slower growth of plants
• Decrease in crop productivity
• Damage to phytoplankton (base of food chain)
• Harm to fish larvae and marine organisms
• Disruption of aquatic ecosystems

Green house effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which certain gases in the Earth’s atmosphere,
such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and water vapour, trap heat from the Sun and
prevent it from escaping back into space, thereby warming the planet. Sunlight passes through
the atmosphere and heats the Earth’s surface, which then emits heat (infrared radiation);
greenhouse gases absorb and re-radiate this heat, keeping the Earth warm enough to support
life. However, human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation have increased the
concentration of these gases, leading to an enhanced greenhouse effect and causing global
warming.
Global Warming Causes and Climate Change Effects

Global warming is mainly caused by the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due
to human activities:

• Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) for energy and transport
• Deforestation, which reduces the number of trees that absorb CO₂
• Industrial emissions and factory pollution
• Agriculture and livestock, releasing methane (CH₄)
 • Use of CFCs and other gases

Climate change leads to serious environmental and social impacts:

• Rising global temperatures

• Melting glaciers and polar ice, causing sea-level rise
• Extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and storms
• Heatwaves and changing rainfall patterns
• Loss of biodiversity and disturbance of ecosystems
• Impacts on agriculture and food supply

Air pollution in India

Air pollution in India remains a critical public health and economic challenge in 2026, with
nearly 44% of Indian cities facing chronic pollution issues. As of January 2026, many urban
centers continue to record hazardous air quality, particularly in North India
• Most Polluted Cities: Byrnihat (Assam-Meghalaya border) recently ranked as India's
most polluted city, followed closely by Delhi and Ghaziabad
• Hazardous Levels: On January 17, 2026, Delhi's AQI exceeded 500, placing it in the
"Hazardous" range with PM2.5 concentrations over 70 times the WHO guidelines.
• Regional Trends: While North Indian cities suffer severe winter smog, southern cities
like Bengaluru, Chennai and Hyderabad maintain relatively better (though still often
"unhealthy") air quality
Jan 2026
Health and Economic Impacts
• Mortality: Air pollution is linked to over 2 million deaths annually in India, according to
2024-2025 reports.
• Life Expectancy: Chronic exposure reduces average life expectancy in India by
approximately 5 years.
• Economic Loss: In 2019, the economic cost of air pollution was estimated at $36.8
billion (1.36% of GDP), a figure expected to rise as pollution persists.

Government Initiatives & Regulatory Framework

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Aims for a 40% reduction in particulate
matter by 2026 across 131 "non-attainment" cities.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): An emergency framework in the National
Capital Region (NCR) that triggers stricter curbs (e.g., school closures, construction bans)
as AQI worsens.
• Emission Norms: India leapfrogged to Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) vehicle and fuel
standards in 2020 to reduce tailpipe emissions.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): Aims to replace traditional cooking fuels
with cleaner LPG in millions of households.

Delhi Air Pollution – Case Study

Overview of the Problem
Delhi is one of the most polluted cities in the world, especially during winter when a thick layer
of smog covers the city. Air Quality Index (AQI) levels often reach “severe” categories,
making the air hazardous to breathe.
Major Causes
• Vehicle emissions from millions of cars and two-wheelers
• Stubble burning in nearby states like Punjab and Haryana
• Industrial pollution and power plants
• Construction and road dust
• Burning of waste and firecrackers (especially during festivals)
Seasonal Factors
• In winter, low temperature and calm winds trap pollutants near the ground
• Temperature inversion prevents pollutants from dispersing
• Leads to formation of dense smog
Impacts
• Increase in respiratory diseases (asthma, bronchitis)
• Eye irritation and throat problems
• Reduced lung function, especially in children
• Rise in hospital admissions and premature deaths

Temperature Inversion
Temperature Inversion is a weather phenomenon in which the normal pattern of temperature
in the atmosphere is reversed. Normally, air near the Earth’s surface is warm and rises, allowing
pollutants to disperse. However, during temperature inversion, a layer of warm air forms
above cooler air near the ground, trapping the cooler air and pollutants below it. This
prevents vertical mixing of air, causing pollutants like smoke and dust to accumulate near the
surface, leading to smog and poor air quality, especially in winter and in cities like Delhi.
Geographical disadvantage
• Delhi is a landlocked city located in the Indo-Gangetic plain, meaning it does not have
nearby seas or large water bodies to help disperse pollutants. This leads to the accumulation
of polluted air.
• The Himalayan mountains in the north act as a barrier, preventing the free movement of
air and stopping pollutants from dispersing toward the north.
• Delhi is like a shallow bowl (basin) formed by surrounding higher land and ridges, which
traps air and pollutants, worsening pollution levels.
• Delhi often experiences low wind speeds, especially in winter, which reduces the
dispersion of pollutants and allows them to remain concentrated.

Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) is a set of emergency measures implemented
in Delhi and NCR to control air pollution based on its severity levels. It is enforced by
authorities like the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM).

Source: Drishti IAS

Water Pollution
Water availability
• About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, but very little is usable freshwater.
• 97% of Earth’s water is saline and found in oceans.
• Only 3% is freshwater, most of which is locked in ice caps and glaciers.
• Just 0.003% of total water is readily available.
• If Earth’s water were 100 litres, usable freshwater would be only 0.003 litres.
• Freshwater is a highly precious and limited resource.
• Growing population will increase water scarcity and competition.
• Water availability will strongly influence future conflicts and economic growth.

Water Pollution
➢ When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of human
activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted
Contamination of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans and groundwater by substances
like chemicals, sewage, industrial waste and plastics, making the water unsafe for drinking and
harmful to aquatic life. It is mainly caused by human activities such as improper waste disposal,
agricultural runoff containing fertilizers and pesticides and discharge of untreated sewage and
industrial effluents. Water pollution leads to serious problems like the spread of diseases, death
of aquatic organisms, disruption of ecosystems and shortage of clean drinking water
Point and Non-Point Sources of Pollution
Point sources are sources of pollution that come from a single, identifiable location. These
are easier to monitor and control.
Examples: discharge from factory pipes, sewage outlets, oil spills from specific locations.

Non-point sources are sources of pollution that do not have a single identifiable origin and
are spread over a large area. These are difficult to control.
Examples: agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides), urban runoff from roads, rainwater
carrying pollutants into water bodies.

Causes of water pollution

1. Industrial Discharge and Toxic Waste
Refer to the release of harmful substances from industries into the environment, especially into
water bodies, air and land. Industrial discharge includes the dumping of untreated or partially
treated wastewater containing chemicals, heavy metals (like lead, mercury), oils and dyes into
rivers and lakes. Toxic waste consists of dangerous substances produced during industrial
processes that can be poisonous, corrosive or radioactive. These pollutants can contaminate
water and soil, harm aquatic life, enter the food chain and cause serious health problems in
humans such as poisoning, cancers and organ damage. Proper treatment and safe disposal of
industrial waste are essential to reduce their harmful effects on the environment
2. Agricultural Runoff
It is the flow of water from agricultural fields into nearby rivers, lakes, or groundwater, carrying
along fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and animal waste. This usually happens during rainfall
or irrigation, when excess water washes these chemicals off the land. As a result, water bodies
become polluted, leading to problems like eutrophication (excess nutrients causing algal
blooms), depletion of oxygen in water, and harm to aquatic life. Agricultural runoff can also
contaminate drinking water sources and pose health risks to humans and animals.
3. Sewage and Wastewater
It refer to used water that contains domestic, industrial, and commercial wastes, including
human excreta, food waste, soaps, detergents, and harmful chemicals. This wastewater is often
discharged into rivers, lakes, or seas, sometimes without proper treatment, leading to serious
water pollution. It contains pathogens (bacteria and viruses) that can cause diseases like cholera
and typhoid, as well as organic matter that reduces oxygen levels in water, harming aquatic
life. Proper treatment of sewage in treatment plants is essential to remove contaminants and
protect both human health and the environment.
➢ The United Nations reports that more than 80% of the world's wastewater flows back into
the environment without being treated or reused.
4. Water pollution with Oil
The contamination of water bodies like oceans, seas, and rivers by oil spills and leakages. This
usually occurs due to accidents involving oil tankers, leakage from ships, offshore drilling, or
industrial discharge. When oil spreads over the water surface, it forms a thin layer that blocks
sunlight and reduces oxygen exchange, harming aquatic life. It can coat the bodies of birds and
marine animals, affecting their movement and survival, and may lead to long-term damage to
marine ecosystems and coastal environments.
5. Plastic and Solid Waste
Slowly and non-biodegradable materials like plastic bags, bottles, packaging, and other
garbage that accumulate in the environment, especially in water bodies and on land. These
wastes are mainly generated from households, industries, and commercial activities, and when
improperly disposed of, they cause serious pollution. Plastic does not decompose easily and
can persist for hundreds of years, harming aquatic life through ingestion and entanglement,
blocking drainage systems, and releasing toxic chemicals. Over time, larger plastic items break
down into tiny particles called microplastics, which are less than 5 mm in size; these can enter
water, soil, and even the food chain, posing risks to both animals and human health.
6. Emerging and "Hidden" Causes

➢ Thermal pollution occurs when industries and power plants discharge hot water into
rivers, lakes, or seas. This raises the temperature of the water, reducing dissolved oxygen
 levels and harming aquatic organisms, especially fish and other temperature-sensitive
species.
➢ Radioactive pollution is caused by the release of radioactive substances from nuclear
power plants, research facilities, or improper disposal of nuclear waste. These substances
can contaminate water bodies, posing serious long-term health risks to humans and aquatic
life due to their toxic and persistent nature.
➢ Atmospheric deposition refers to pollutants present in the air that settle into water bodies
either directly (dry deposition) or through rain and snow (wet deposition). These pollutants,
such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, can lead to acid rain, which lowers the pH of
water and harms aquatic ecosystems.

Health Effects of Water Pollution

Water pollution has serious effects on human health because contaminated water contains
harmful microorganisms, chemicals and toxins. It can cause waterborne diseases such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and diarrhea, which can be life-threatening if untreated. Polluted
water may also contain toxic substances like heavy metals and chemicals that can lead to
poisoning, organ damage, and cancers. Long-term exposure can affect the nervous system,
liver, and kidneys, while lack of safe drinking water also leads to poor hygiene and increased
spread of infections.

Control measures for preventing water pollution

• Treat sewage and industrial wastewater in treatment plants before discharge
• Enforce strict laws and regulations to control industrial pollution
• Avoid dumping garbage, plastics, and chemicals into water bodies
• Promote proper waste management and recycling
• Reduce use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture
• Encourage organic and eco-friendly farming practices
• Prevent oil spills and leakage from ships and industries
• Create public awareness about water conservation and pollution
• Encourage community participation in cleaning and protecting water sources
• Regular monitoring of water quality to control pollution levels
Government Initiatives and Progress
• Namami Gange Mission-II (NGM 2.0): This flagship program, extended to March 2026
with an outlay of ₹22,500 crore, has operationalized 173 sewage treatment plants
(STPs) with a total capacity of 3,976 MLD as of January 2026.
• Sewage Infrastructure: The government aims to sanction a cumulative treatment capacity
of 7,000 MLD by December 2026. In the third quarter of FY 2025–26, nine major sewerage
projects were commissioned in cities like Varanasi, Agra and Patna.
• Industrial Monitoring: Real-time monitoring now covers over 4,493 Grossly Polluting
Industries (GPIs), with nearly 3,031 reported as compliant with environmental standards as
of late 2025.
• Biodiversity Conservation: A dedicated Aqua Life Conservation Monitoring Centre was
inaugurated in January 2026 to research and protect freshwater species
• Innovative Monitoring: The State Mission for Clean Ganga (West Bengal)
launched drone-based surveys in January 2026 to map untreated outfalls along a 120 km
stretch of the Hooghly river

Soil pollution
Composition of soil

1. O Horizon (Organic Layer)

• Topmost layer made of dead plants, leaves, and organic matter (humus)
• Dark in color and rich in nutrients

2. A Horizon (Topsoil)

• Contains minerals mixed with humus

• Most fertile layer where plants grow
• Supports roots, microorganisms, and insects

3. B Horizon (Subsoil)

• Contains less organic matter but more minerals like iron and clay
• Harder and lighter in color than topsoil
• Acts as a storage zone for minerals

4. C Horizon (Parent Material)

• Made of partially weathered rock fragments

• Very little organic material
• Forms the base for upper layers

5. R Horizon (Bedrock)

• Solid rock layer beneath all soil layers

• Source of the parent material
• Hard and unweathered

Soil pollution
Soil pollution is the contamination of soil by harmful substances such as chemicals, waste and
toxic materials, which reduces its quality and makes it unfit for plant growth and living
organisms.

Causes

• Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides

• Industrial waste and chemical dumping
• Improper disposal of plastic and solid waste
• Sewage and landfill leakage
• Mining and deforestation

Effects

• Loss of soil fertility and reduced crop yield

• Harm to microorganisms and soil organisms
• Entry of toxins into the food chain
• Health problems in humans and animals
• Land degradation and desertification

Control Measures

• Reduce use of harmful chemicals in farming

• Proper disposal and treatment of waste
• Promote organic farming
• Recycling and reuse of materials
• Afforestation and soil conservation

Radioactive pollution
Nuclear Energy Generation Process
• Mining of Uranium Ore: Uranium ore is extracted from the earth through mining (open-
pit or underground mining).
• Milling and Processing: The ore is crushed and processed to produce uranium
concentrate (yellowcake).
• Enrichment of Uranium: The concentration of U-235 isotope is increased to make it
suitable for nuclear fuel.
• Fuel Fabrication: Enriched uranium is converted into fuel pellets, which are packed into
fuel rods.
• Nuclear Fission in Reactor: In the nuclear reactor, uranium atoms undergo fission,
releasing a large amount of heat energy.
• Heat Production: The heat generated is used to convert water into steam.
• Electricity Generation: Steam rotates turbines connected to generators, producing
electricity.
• Waste Management: Radioactive waste produced is safely stored and managed to prevent
environmental harm.

Radioactive pollution

Radioactive pollution is the contamination of the environment (air, water, or soil) by

radioactive substances that emit harmful radiation, which can be dangerous to living
organisms.

Causes

• Leakage from nuclear power plants

• Improper disposal of radioactive waste
• Nuclear weapons testing
• Accidents like nuclear explosions or reactor failures
• Mining and processing of radioactive materials (e.g., uranium)

Effects

• Causes cancer and genetic mutations

• Damage to body cells and tissues
• Birth defects and long-term health problems
• Can contaminate soil and water for many years
• Harm to plants, animals, and entire ecosystems

Control Measures

• Safe storage and disposal of radioactive waste

• Strict safety measures in nuclear plants
• Limiting nuclear testing
• Monitoring radiation levels regularly
• Use of protective equipment and technology

Case Study: Ganga Action Plan

To reduce the pollution of this river the Government of India (GOI) has been implementing a
pollution abatement program since last 40 years
• Launched in 1986 by Government of India to abate pollution in River Ganga.
• Phase I (1986-2000): Covered 25 Class-I towns (UP, Bihar, West Bengal) focused on
sewage interception and treatment.
• Phase II (1993): Expanded coverage to additional states and stretches of the basin. Also
included Yamuna, Gomti and Damodar.
• GAP was the first major river-cleaning programme in India and set foundation for later
missions.
Primary Objectives:
• Reduce pollution load and improve water quality.
• Stop/block, diversion and treatment of municipal sewage.
• Control industrial effluents; public awareness
Strategy Elements:
Build Sewage Treatment Plant (STPs), sewer networks, Effluent Treatment Plant (ETPs);
promote riverfront sanitation and community engagement.

• Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-I (1986–2000): This first phase cost
approximately ₹452 crore.

• Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-II (1993 onwards): Combined with the National River
Conservation Plan (NRCP), expenditure was roughly ₹652.89 crore (approximate).

• Total Expenditure (1986–2014): Approximately ₹4,800 crore was spent between 1986
and 2014, according to the Ministry of Environment and Forests
Achievements:
• Created pollution-control infrastructure and raised public awareness.
• Built initial institutional mechanisms for river management.

Reasons for Limited Success

• Infrastructure Failure: Many STPs were either improperly constructed or not fully
operational due to high electricity costs.
• Rapid Urbanization: The volume of sewage generated grew faster than the capacity of the
new treatment plants.
• Ineffective Management: Limited community engagement and lack of maintenance of
established assets in early phases.

Legacy: GAP informed later programmes (NRCP and Namami Gange). Need for integrated
basin approach and community participation.