Module 2: Building Components & Building Planning

Foundation and superstructure

 Foundation (PYQ 2024)
The foundation or substructure is the lowest part of a building, located below the ground
level. It is the part of the structure which transfers the entire load of the building to the
subsoil safely. The ground on which the foundation rests is called the foundation bed, and
the lowermost part of the foundation that is in direct contact with the subsoil is known as the
footing. The foundation plays a vital role in ensuring the stability and strength of the
structure, and any signs of failure in the foundation often become visible only after serious
damage has occurred to the structure. Hence, the foundation must be designed with great care
as it is the most critical part of any structure and most of the failures are due probably due to
faulty foundations.

Before any foundation is designed or constructed, site exploration and inspection are
crucial steps. These processes provide essential information about the soil and groundwater
conditions, which directly impact the safety and stability of the building. Site inspection
helps engineers choose the right type and depth of the foundation and the most suitable and
economical construction methods. Additionally, it assists in understanding soil properties,
such as bearing capacity, density, moisture content, and compressive strength. Engineers also
evaluate groundwater levels and check for potential hazards like aggressive subsoil water or
harmful organic impurities that may affect the durability of the structure.

The foundations serves the following purposes – (PYQ 2024)

(i) Foundations distribute the loads of the superstructure to a larger area so as the intensity of
the load at its base does not exceeds the safe bearing capacity of the subsoil.
(ii) Foundations distribute the uneven load of the superstructure to the subsoil evenly.
(iii) Foundation support the structures.
(iv) It provides the safety to the structure against undermining or scour due to animals, flood
water, etc.
(v) It provides levelled and hard surface to the superstructure, over which superstructure can
be built.
(vi) Foundation gives lateral stability to the structure against various forces such as wind, rain
and earthquake etc.

A good foundation should fulfil the following requirements:

(i) The foundations should be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed load and to
transmit these to the subsoil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which
would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures
(ii) The good foundation should be taken sufficiently deep so as to reach for hard strata.
(iii) The base of the foundation should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimised.
(iv) The foundation should transfer the load of the superstructure in such a way so that
pressure on subsoil will not cause settlement.
(v) The foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
(vi) The area of the footing should be such larger, so as the intensity of the load at its base
does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the subsoil.
Types of Foundation Failures

1. General Shear Failure: - This type of failure occurs when the foundation soil is
subjected to both vertical and centric loads. The pressure causes a sudden and well-
defined shear pattern around the foundation, typically forming along a bulging
surface. General shear failure is most commonly observed in dense and stiff soils that
cannot deform significantly without fracturing.
2. Punching Failure: - Punching failure is a common issue in reinforced concrete flat
slabs and foundations, especially under concentrated loads from columns. It occurs
when the load literally "punches" through the slab. The punching capacity of a
foundation is affected by several factors including the concrete’s compressive
strength, the amount and placement of shear reinforcement, and the design of flexural
reinforcement.
3. Structural Failure: - Structural failure refers to any type of damage that
compromises the integrity of major structural components of a building. This includes
the foundation, load-bearing walls, and the roof. Such failures may result from poor
design, substandard materials, or overloading, and can pose serious safety risks if not
addressed promptly.
4. Bending Failure: - Bending failure happens when a structural member, such as a
beam or slab, fails to withstand the bending moments applied to it. This can lead to
cracking, deflection, or even total collapse of the element. It is a critical form of
failure that highlights weaknesses in structural design or material performance.
5. Base Failure: - Base failure occurs when the supporting soil beneath the foundation
fails along a finite slope. This usually happens in weak, saturated, or poorly
compacted soils where the applied load exceeds the soil’s shear strength. The result is
a downward and outward movement of the foundation.
6. Face Failure: - Face failure takes place when the failure surface passes through the
slope above the toe of the foundation. It typically affects structures built on sloping
ground or embankments and is influenced by soil type, slope angle, and moisture
content.

Superstructure
A superstructure is the portion of the building that is above the ground level, starting from
the plinth level and extending upwards. It includes all the visible components of the building
such as walls, floors, beams, columns, and roofs. The superstructure is not only crucial for
providing shelter and space for human use but also plays a vital role in determining the
functionality and aesthetic appeal of a building. Superstructure construction involves
assembling all these elements above the foundation to create the usable spaces where people
live, work, and interact. Since it is the part most frequently in use, the superstructure must be
designed keeping in mind the intended purpose of the building, safety, durability, and
architectural requirements.

Types of shallow and deep foundations

The foundations can be broadly classified into two categories –

(i) Shallow foundation. (PYQ 2024)
Shallow Foundation – Shallow foundations are made by making open excavations. They are
the foundations commonly used in building industry. These foundations are practicable up to
the depth of 3 m to 4 m, and is generally convenient above the water table. As these foundations
are construct at reasonable shallow depth so as these are called as shallow foundations. They
are also called as open foundations.

There are various types of shallow foundations as follows –

(a) Wall Footing – These footings can be either simple or stepped. Simple footings are used
to carry light loads, whereas stepped footings are used to carry heavy loads. Simple footing has
only one projection on either side of the wall whereas stepped footings have numbers of
projection on either side of the wall.
The base course of these footings can be concrete or entirely of one material. The width of
concrete base should be at least equal to twice the width of wall. The depth of concrete bed
should be at least equal to the projection. Generally, the projection provided in the footing is
kept as 15 cm on either sides.

(b) Isolated Footing or Column Footing – They are used to support individual columns. They
can be either of stepped type or have projections in the concrete base. In case of heavy loaded
columns, steel reinforcement is provided in both the directions in concrete bed. Generally, 15
cm offset is provided on all sides of concrete bed. In case of brick masonry columns, an offset
of 5 cm is provided on all the four sides in regular layers. The footing of concrete columns may
be a slab, stepped or sloped type.

(c) Combined Footing – A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row. The
combined footing can be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be
trapezoidal if there are space limitations and they carry unequal loads (See fig. 1.23). Generally,
they are constructed of reinforced concrete. In the design of footings, the footing is assumed to
be rigid and resting on a homogeneous soil. The location of centre of gravity of column loads
and the centroid of the footing should coincide. The maximum bending moment is taken as the
design value for the reinforced concrete footing and should be checked for maximum shear and
bend, etc.

(d) Strap or Cantilever Footing – Strap footing consists of two or more individual footings
connected by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as cantilever footing or pump
handle foundation. This type of footing may be used where the distance between the columns
is so great that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow with high bending
moments. The strap beam does not remain in contact with the soil; so a strap does not transfer
any pressure to the soil. However, because the strap is infinitely stiff, hence it serves to transfer
column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings.

(e) Continuous Footing –In this single continuous R.C.C. slab is provided as foundation for
more than two columns in row. The resultant of the column loads W₁, W₂, W₃ must pass through
the centroid of the footing in plan. This type of foundation is suitable in earthquake prone area
and also prevents differential settlement.
(f) Inverted Arch Footing – Inverted arch footing is not a common type of foundation. This
type of foundation is used in places where the bearing capacity of the soil is very poor and load
of the structure is concentrated over the walls and deep excavations are not possible. In this
case, arches are constructed between the two walls of the base. The walls must be sufficiently
thick and strong to withstand the outward horizontal thrust caused by the arch action.

(g) Raft Foundation – Raft foundation is a combined footing that covers the entire area
beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. In this foundation an R.C.C. slab
with beam or without beam of suitable thickness with suitable reinforcement is provided.
Over which walls and columns are constructed. This type of foundation is more useful
whenever the load coming on the soil is practically uniform or soil is of yielding nature or
where soil is tend to cause differential settlement or spread footing would cover more than
half the area of the construction. The design of raft foundation requires careful attention.

(h) Grillage Footing – A grillage footing is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns
to the soils having low bearing power. This type of arrangement avoids deep excavations and
provides necessary area at the base to reduce the intensity of pressure. Grillage footing is made
up of rolled steel joists known as grillage beams provided in single or double tiers. In double
tier arrangement, the top tier is laid perpendicular to the bottom one. The grillage beams of
each tier are held in position by 20 mm dia spacer bars or 25 mm dia pipe separators. Generally,
a minimum clearance of 8 cm is kept between the grillage beams so as to provide facility for
placing concrete. However, the distance between the flanges of grillage beams should not be
more than one and a half to two times the flange width so that the concrete filling acts
monolithically with the beam. A minimum cover of 10 cm is provided on the outer sides of the
external beam as well as above the upper flange of the top tier. In case of lower beams, the
concrete cover under the beam should be more than 15 to 20 cm (see fig. 1.29). The concrete
filling keeps the joists in position and prevents them from corrosion. If the foundation soil is
not stiff and there is plenty of water with springs, then sides are protected by shoring’s. The
water is removed by pumping to provide working space.

(ii) Deep Foundation (PYQ 2024) – Deep foundations are foundations which transmit the
load of a structure to strong soil beds or rock beds available at great depth. When the soil at
or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations are
required to transfer the loads to deeper strata.

(a) Pile foundation: - Pile is an element of construction used as foundation. It may be driven
in the ground vertically or with some inclination to transfer the load safely. Loads are
supported in two ways, i.e. either by the effect of friction between the soil and the pile skin or
by resting the pile on a very hard stratum. The former is called the friction pile and the latter
one is the load bearing pile. Friction piles may be made of cast iron, cement, concrete, timber,
steel, wrought iron and composite materials. Load bearing piles are steel sheet piles, concrete
piles and timber piles. Piles may be cast-in-situ or precast. They may be cased or uncased.

(b) Caisson foundation and Well foundation: - A caisson foundation, also known as a well
foundation, is a watertight, hollow structure used to provide stable support for constructions
in deep water or soft soil, such as bridges, docks, and harbours. It is typically constructed
near the site and then transported to its final location. The caisson is gradually sunk into the
ground by excavating the soil from inside, allowing it to settle under its own weight. The
walls of the caisson, known as staining, bear the structural load and transfer it to the
surrounding soil. Once the caisson reaches a suitable depth—preferably where a hard stratum
is present—the bottom is sealed with a concrete plug. The hollow portion is then filled with
sand or concrete to provide additional stability. A well cap is placed on top of the filled
caisson, and the superstructure is built above it. Caisson foundations are particularly effective
in conditions where the water is too deep to sink ordinary wells, yet a solid bearing layer
exists below the riverbed or soft soil.
A well foundation has the following advantages:
1. It can go to a large depth.
2. Its cost of construction is low.
The typical section of a well foundation consists of cutting edge, well curb, bottom plug,
staining, top plug and well cap, etc., as
 Types of foundation in black cotton soil
(i) Strip or Pad Foundation – For medium loads, strip foundation (for walls) and pad
foundation (for columns) may be provided, along with special design features. Fig. 1.30
shows some typical sections of shallow footings suitable for black cotton and other expansive
soils.

(ii) Pier Foundation with Arches- Piers are dug at regular intervals and filled with cement
concrete. The piers may rest on good bearing strata. These piers are connected by concrete or
masonry arch, over which the wall may be constructed. If required, a concrete beam may be
provided over the arch if the arch is constructed of masonry. The arches are constructed with
a gap above the ground level. This gap would permit free vertical movement of soil during
swelling and shrinkage operations.

(a) L-Section
(b) Cross-Section

(iii) Under-reamed Pile Foundation- An under-reamed pile is a pile of shallow depth (1 to 6

m) having one bulb at its lower end. If this bulb is taken or provided at a level lower than the
critical depth of moisture movement in expansive soils, the foundation will be anchored to
the ground and it would not move with the movement (i.e., swelling and shrinkage) of the
soil. These piles may vary from 15 cm dia. to 50 cm dia., and are suitably spaced. Special
under-reaming tools are available with the help of which these may be bored at site, and then
concreted. They are nominally reinforced to take tensile stresses.

The pile spacing may vary between 2 to 4 m. The piles are connected by a rigid capping
beam, suitably reinforced, over which the wall is constructed. The capping beam is kept 8 to
12 cm above the ground level, so as to provide an air gap to accommodate the soil
movements without adversely affecting the superstructure. Experience has shown that the
buildings constructed on under-reamed piles in expansive soils are free from distress
normally caused in these soils.

Suitability of Different Structural and Architectural Elements in Various Situations

1. Plinth
The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called
plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to support
wall above floor level. At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided. It is usually 75 mm
thick plain concrete course. The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground
level, free of dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at
least 150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage system can be
made.

A plinth: -
(i) transmits the load of the superstructure to the foundation.
(ii) protects the building from damp or moisture penetrating into it. This enhances the
stability and durability of the structure.
(iii) enhances the architectural appearance of the building.
 To provide a solid foundation and support for the building’s structure.
 To raise the building above the ground level, protecting it from moisture and flooding.
 To distribute the load of the building evenly to the foundation.
 To prevent water from seeping into the lower parts of the building.
 To provide a stable base for the construction of walls, columns, and other structural
elements.
 To protect the building from soil movement or erosion.
 To serve as an aesthetic base, giving the building a finished look at ground level.

2. Walls
The vertical components of the building, which are constructed to enclose the space, are
called walls. These are also constructed to divide the space into various rooms and small
compartments as per requirements of the building.

Types of walls: -
1. Load Bearing Walls: If beams and columns are not used, load from roof and floors are
transferred to foundation by walls. Such walls are called load bearing walls. They are to be
designed to transfer the load safely. The critical portion of the walls are near the openings of
doors and windows and the positions where concrete beams rest.
Minimum wall thickness used is 200 mm. It is also recommended that the slenderness ratio of
wall defined as ratio of effective length or effective height to thickness should not be more
than 27.
2. Partition Walls: In framed structures partition walls are built to divide floor area for
different utilities. They rest on floors. They do not carry loads from floor and roof. They have
to carry only self-weight. Hence normally partition walls are thin. Table 8.4 shows the
differences between load bearing walls and partition walls. Depending upon the requirement
these walls may be brick partition, clay block partition, glass partition, wood partition, and
aluminium and glass partition.

Functions: -
 To provide structural support and stability to the building.
 To divide the interior space into rooms and functional areas.
 To provide privacy by separating different rooms or spaces.
 To secure the building by acting as barriers against unauthorized access.
 To protect the interior from weather elements like wind, rain, and temperature changes.
 To offer thermal and sound insulation between rooms or from the outside.
 To enhance the aesthetic appeal of both interior and exterior spaces.
 To house essential utilities like electrical wiring, plumbing, and ventilation ducts.
3. Lintels
Lintel is a horizontal member placed over an opening such as doors and walls. It acts just like
a beam and transfers the loads of brick or stone masonry acting over the openings to the
supporting walls on the either side.

There are various functions of lintels:

1. They are provided over an opening to support the portion of the structure above it.
2. They act as a beam.
3. They support the load acting over the openings.
4. Arches provide architectural appearance.
5. They provide openings for doors, windows, ventilators, cupboards, wardrobes, etc.

Types of Lintels: -
(i) Timber Lintel - They are made up from timber pieces that are placed over the openings.
These were in use in olden days. They are not in common use these days. They are easily
affected by white ants and other insects. These are the weak sections than stone and steel.

(ii) Stone Lintel - They are made up from stone pieces those are placed over the openings.
They may be in the form of single piece or more than one piece. They are very weak in
tension so cannot be used on large spans. They may crack when subjected to the vibrations.

(iii) Brick Lintel - They are made up from bricks those are generally placed on end or on
edge. The bricks should be well burnt and free from cracks. These are weak in nature so that
they are suitable up to span of 1m.
(iv) R.C.C. Lintel - They are made up from reinforcement and concrete. The reinforcement
is provided for resisting tensile stresses and concrete is provided for resisting compressive
stresses. They are very suitable in modern construction. They may be cast in any shape and
size. They may be used for long spans. They may be precast or cast in situ.

(v) Steel Lintel – They are made up from steel angles or rolled steel joist. Angle iron is used
for small spans, while rolled steel joist is preferred for larger spans. The steel joists can be
used as a single unit or in combinations of two or three units.

4. Beams
A beam in construction is a horizontal or sloping structural element that carries loads and
distributes them across supports. Beams are used in many types of structures, including
buildings, bridges, and roofs. They support the load acting on the overall structure and
transfer it to columns. Beams are aligned horizontally within structures and can resist vertical
forces, shear forces, and bending moments.

Types of Beams
(i) Simply Supported Beam A beam supported freely at the two ends on walls or
columns are called a simply supported beam. It is important to note that in actual practice, no
beam rests freely on the supports (walls or columns) without fixing on the supports. Hence,
no beam is practically simply supported. End connections (supports) do not carry any end
moments due to the non-continuity developed by the connections of beam and supports.
(ii) Fixed Beam In a fixed beam, both the ends of the beams are rigidly fixed or
embedded into the supports (walls or columns). Main reinforcement bars and shear bars
(stirrups) are placed as in the case of simply supported beams.
(iii) Cantilever beam When a beam is fixed in a wall or column at one end and the
other end is free, it is called a cantilever beam. This type of beam has tension zone in the
top side and a compression zone in the bottom side.
Uses Cantilever beams are used to support slabs projecting outside the wall or column.
Examples are portico, balcony, etc.
T-Beam As the name suggests, the section of this beam is in the shape of ‘T’. The design
concept of a T-beam is the monolithic action of the slab with the flange and rib portions of
the beams. A T-beam is developed when a slab is cast monolithically with the beam and the
slab extends on both the sides of the beams.
L-Beam An L-beam is developed when a slab extends on one side of the beam only and is
monolithic. L-beams are used at the end walls of a room.
(v) Overhanging Beam - In an overhanging beam, its end extends beyond the wall or
column support. The overhanging of the beam is the unsupported portion of the beam. It may
be on side or both the sides of the support.
Depending on the reinforcement, a beam may be classified as follows:
(i) Singly reinforcement beam
If the main reinforcement of steel bars are provided only on one side of the beam, it is known
as singly reinforcement beam.
(ii) Doubly reinforcement beam
If the main reinforcement of steel bars is provided both at top and bottom (tension and
compression zones) of the beam, it is known as a doubly reinforced beam.

Some Characteristics and Usage of Beams:

 Shape: The shape of the beam's cross-section, e.g., rectangular, square, or circular, etc.
 Support: The way the beam is supported, such as simply supported, cantilever,
overhanging, fixed-end, and continuous beams. The type of beam depends on the specific
requirements and design of the structure.
 Material: The material used for the beam, such as steel, concrete, or timber.
 Length: The length of the beam, also referred to as the span of the beam.
 Equilibrium Conditions: Refers to the beam's ability to maintain equilibrium under
loads.
 Load Distribution: Beams distribute loads across the structure's foundations.
 Preventing Collapse: Beams ensure the structure doesn't collapse under its own weight
or external forces.
 Withstanding Forces: Beams are designed to withstand shear forces, bending moments,
vertical loads, and can also be built to resist lateral forces like seismic loads.

5. Columns
A column is a vertical structural member. It transmits the load coming from the slab
(ceiling/roof) and beam, including its self-weight to the foundation of the building. Columns
may be subjected to a pure compressive load (axial compression) or a combination of
compressive load and bending moment. A structural member subjected to an axial compressive
load is known as strut. Compression member in a truss may be known as chord members or
web members, depending on their truss location. Columns may also be called by various other
names, such as braces or struts.

Functions: -
 To support the weight of the structure above, including floors, beams, and roof.
 To transfer loads from the superstructure to the foundation.
 To provide vertical stability to the building and prevent shifting or collapsing.
 To resist lateral forces, such as wind or seismic loads, ensuring structural safety.
 To maintain the alignment and shape of the building by providing a vertical framework.
 To enhance the aesthetic design, often being used as decorative features in architecture.

Classification of Columns based on materials

1. RCC Columns - If the effective length of a compression member is equal to or less than
thrice the least lateral dimension, the member is made of plain cement concrete. If the effective
length of a compression member is more than thrice the least lateral dimension, the member
should be reinforced. Reinforced concrete columns are of square, rectangular or circular cross
sections. The load carrying capacity of the column depends on the strength of concrete and
steel. If the percentage of steel used is less in a column, the steel will reach its yield strength
prior to concrete. The column will not fail since it can take more load at this stage. Due to this
increase in load, steel will yield and the concrete will reach its full strength. Hence, the strength
of the entire material is utilised. On the other hand, if the percentage of steel used is large, then
concrete fails first and the failure will be spontaneous.
Uses: RCC columns are used in multi-storeyed buildings and heavily loaded structures.
RCC columns are very widely used now-a-days.

2. Steel Columns or Stanchions- Steel columns are also known as stanchions. These are
widely used in industrial structures. Steel columns are fabricated using rolled steel joists,
channels, angles and plates. A steel column is a vertical compression member. It supports or
girders in a building. A girder is a main load carrying member into which floor beams or joists
are connected. Joists are beam members, which are used to carry floors and roofs of buildings
of light loads supported on long columns. The shape of the cross section of the steel section
and the sectional area should be designed carefully to avoid buckling. The important property
required for a compression member is a high value of moment of inertia. I-sections, tubular
sections and two equal angle steel sections may be used for light loads. Single-angle sections
should be avoided for steel columns.

6. Slabs
A slab is a horizontal structural element of a building that provides a flat surface for floors,
ceilings, or roofs. It is supported by beams, columns, or walls and is typically made of
reinforced concrete, steel, or composite materials. A well-designed slab is essential for the
stability and functionality of a building. It must be strong enough to bear the loads imposed
by occupants, furniture, and equipment while ensuring durability and minimal deflection. A
slab should also be properly reinforced to resist bending, cracking, and shear forces, and it
must be designed to provide adequate insulation, fire resistance, and waterproofing as
required by the specific building conditions.
Functions: -
 To provide a flat, stable surface for floors or roofs in a building.
 To support the weight of occupants, furniture, and other loads on the floor or roof.
 To distribute loads evenly to the supporting beams, columns, or walls.
 To create a division between different levels of the building, such as floors or ceilings.
 To provide thermal and sound insulation, helping to regulate indoor conditions.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of ceilings and floors with various finishes.
 To resist bending and deformation by being reinforced with steel or other materials.

7. Roofs
A roof is the uppermost part of the building which is supported on structural members and
covered with a roofing material. Roof protects the building from the damaging effects of
weather elements such as rain, wind, heat, snow etc. Life of the building is increased by the
roof. Good roof protects the building against deterioration starting from the top. There are
various factors those are kept in mind before selecting a roof such as weather, heat insulation,
strength and stability, lighting, sound insulation, ventilation, etc.

A good roof should satisfy the following requirements:

(i) The roof should be strong and stable enough to take up the anticipated loads safely.
(ii) The roof covering should have adequate resistance to resist the effects of weather such as
wind, rain, sun, snow, etc.
(iii) The roof should provide adequate insulation against heat, sound and fire.

There are different types of roofs as follows –

(i) Pitched or Slopping Roofs – Pitched roofs are those which have the decks or surfaces
with considerable slope for covering the building structure either of wood or steel. Generally,
pitched or slopping roofs are very suitable to coastal regions where rainfall is heavy but the
temperature is more or less equal.
(ii) Flat Roofs – A roof which is nearly flat i.e. angle to the horizontal less than 10 is known
as flat roof. Flat roofs are suitable in plain area.
(iii) Shell or Curved Roofs – Shell roofs are three-dimensional structures consisting of thin
membrane slabs, curved in one or more directions which transfer the loads on points of
support, i.e. columns, etc. Shell roofs are built of several materials, viz., timber, steel sheets,
etc. but R.C.C. shell roofs are most popular in the modern age. Shell or curved roofs are
generally used in factories, workshops, assembly halls, theatres, recreation halls, libraries,
etc.
(iv) Domes – Domes are special types of shell roofs, having semi-spherical or semi-elliptical
shapes, which are used for covering large circular areas (in plan) of structure such as
assembly halls, gymnasiums, field houses and other monumental structures.

There are different roof coverings which are commonly used are as follows –
(i) Thatch Covering – This form of covering is extensively used in sheds, low-cost houses
and village buildings. It is considered suitable for rural areas because it forms the cheapest
and the tightest material as a roof covering. Moreover, it is simple to construct and keeps the
building cool. Thatch covering made from straw or reed is used.
(ii) Shingles – The use of wood shingles as a roof covering is generally restricted to hill areas
where wood is easily and cheaply available in abundance.
Wood shingles are nothing but the sawn or split thin pieces of wood resembling slates or
tiles. To form continuous roof covering, wood shingles are laid in a similar manner as slates
and tiles, described later. Shingle strips are driven on rafters and shingles are nailed on their
top. Generally, at the eaves, two courses of shingles are laid directly one over the other.
(iii) Tiles – The use of tiles is one of the oldest methods of roof covering. The tiles are named
according to their shape and pattern, and they are manufactured in the similar manner as
bricks. The clay tiles are of various types, such as flat tiles, pan tiles, pot tiles or half round
country tiles and patent tiles such as Mangalore.
(iv) Asbestos Cement Sheets, i.e., A.C. Sheets – Asbestos cement is a material which
consists of Portland cement and asbestos fibres (about 15%). Roof coverings made of this
material are cheap, tough, durable, water-tight, fire resisting and light in weight. A.C. sheets
roof covering is commonly adopted for factories, workshops, offices, garages, cinemas and
residential buildings.
(v) Galvanized Corrugated Iron Sheets – These sheets are extensively used as a roof
covering material in factories, workshops, sheds, cheap buildings, etc. Though galvanized
corrugated iron sheets do not have an attractive appearance but still they are widely used as
they are very durable, fire-proof, light in weight and require no maintenance. These sheets are
manufactured in a form which have the corrugations (i.e., a series of parallel depressions)
from one end to another. These sheets are laid with corrugations running down the slope of
the roof. The purpose of corrugations is to impart additional strength to thin iron sheets and to
discharge the water quickly away from the sheets. The iron sheets are galvanized with zinc to
protect them from the rusting action of wet weather.
(vi) Slate – A ‘Slate’ is a sedimentary rock, normally blue grey in colour, capable of being
split and dressed into thin sheets for use as roof coverings. Stone slate forms the most durable
of all the roof coverings.
A good slate should be hard tough and durable, of rough texture, ring bell like when struck
with finger, not split when holed or pressed, non-absorbent, free from white patches and of
uniform colour throughout. A good slate should not absorb more than 2% of its weight when
soaked in water for 24 hours.

Classification of sloping roofs

Pitched roofs are those which have the decks or surfaces with considerable slope for covering
the building structure either of wood or steel. These types of roofs are generally provided in
the regions of heavy rain.
These roofs are classified into the following heads –
(i) Single roofs
(ii) Double or purlin roofs
(iii) Trussed roofs
(i) Single Roofs
These roofs consist only of common rafters, which are secured at the ridge and wall plates.
Single roofs are of various forms as following –
(a) Lean-to-Roof (PYQ 2024) – These generally covers the verandah of a building and
projected from the main wall of the building. In this roof, common rafters are inclined at 30°
against a wall. These types of roofs are suitable for a maximum span of 2.5 metres.
Upper ends of the common rafters are placed on a wooden wall plate, placed on corbel. The
lower ends of these common rafters are nailed to a wooden post-plate which is joined to the
top of posts on verandah wall.

(b) Couple Roof – In this type of roof, pair of the common rafters are placed upward from
the side walls and they are supported at the upper ends at the ridge piece in the middle as
shown in fig. 1.45. These roofs are generally adopted for a maximum span of 3.5 metres.
These types of roofs are not generally used because it has a tendency to spread at the feet and
thrust out the walls.

(c) Couple-Close-Roof - This type of roof is similar to a couple roof, only difference is that
the common rafters are closed by a horizontal tie known as tie-beam. This tie may be of wool
or steel. This type of roofs can be used for a maximum span of 4.5 metres. Fig. 1.46 shows
this type of roof.

(d) Collar-Beam Roof - This type of roof is similar to the couple close roof only difference
is that, the horizontal tie is now raised up from the feet of the rafters to almost middle of
rafters as shown in fig. 1.47. That raised up tie is known as collar beam. These roofs are
suitable for spans of 4.0 to 5.5 metres.
(ii) Double or Purlins Roofs - In this type of roof, a purlin is attached to support the
common rafters at the intermediate points. These roofs are suitable for 5.5 metres span. The
function of purlins is to support the rafters together and acts as intermediate supports.

(iii) Framed or Trussed Roofs - Truss roof is the combination of three sets of members, i.e.,
common rafters, purlins and truss. These are generally adopted for long spans. In roof truss,
load of the roof covering material transfer to rafters, which distribute this load to purlins,
which transfer this load to the trusses and finally all load is transfer to the walls. These are
generally used for the spans more than 5 metres. The usual forms of roof trusses are as
follows: -
(a) King Post Truss - This is the wooden truss. It is suitable for spans varying from 5 to 9
metres. It consists of two principal rafters, a tie beam, a king post and two struts.

The central upright portion is called king post. It prevents the tie beam from sagging at its
centre. It is made up of various elements. Purlins are placed over the joints of principal rafters
and they support the common rafters. Cleats are the pieces which fixed on principal rafter to
prevent the purlins from tilting. The common rafters rest on the purlins. The battens or
reepers are nailed across the common rafter. The roof covering is then laid over it.
(b) Queen Post Roof Truss - Its having two wooden uprights or vertical members, known as
queen-posts, instead of a king-post. The truss consists of two queen-posts, two principal
rafters, struts, tie-beams, straining sill, purlins, cleats, etc. The queen posts prevent the
sagging in the tie beam. The upper ends of the queen-posts are kept in position by straining
beam. The straining sill, is fixed on the tie beam, between the feet of queen posts.
Functions: -
 To protect the building and occupants from weather conditions like rain, sun, wind, and
snow.
 To act as the top structural covering of the building.
 To provide thermal insulation and help regulate indoor temperature.
 To contribute to the aesthetic and architectural appeal of the structure.
 To allow water drainage through sloping or pitched designs.
 To serve as space for utilities like solar panels, water tanks, or HVAC systems.
 To provide fire resistance and safety in case of emergencies.
 To offer additional usable space such as terraces, gardens, or recreational areas.

8. Staircases
Stair is the structure having series of steps which provides the ascent and descent between the
floors, and the room in which the stair is located is known as the staircase.
A good stair should have the following characteristics:
1. It should be of sufficient size, not too large nor too small.
2. The steps of the stair should be sufficiently wide.
3. It should be conveniently located near all the rooms of the building.
4. It should be strong and durable.
5. The height of the rise should not exceed 20 cm.
6. The inclination of the stair should not be less than 25° and not exceed 45°.
7. A flight should consist of a minimum of 3 steps and a maximum of 15 steps.
8. It should have a sufficient landing area.
9. In residential buildings, it should be centrally located, while in public buildings, it
should be near the main entrance.
10. It should be provided with handrails.

The stairs are classified as follows:

(a) Straight Stairs: If the space available for stair case is narrow and long, straight stairs
may be provided. Such stairs are commonly used to give access to porch or as emergency
exits to cinema halls. In this type all steps are in one direction. They may be provided in
single flight or in two flights with landing between the two flights.
(b) Dog Legged Stairs: It consists of two straight flights with 180° turn between the two.
They are very commonly used to give access from floor to floor.

(c) Well or Open-newel Stairs: It differs from dog legged stairs such that in this case there
is 0.15 m to 1.0 m gap between the two adjacent flights.

(d) Geometrical Stair: This type of stair is similar to the open newel stair except that well
formed between the two adjacent flights is curved. The hand rail provided is continuous.
(e) Spiral Stairs: These stairs are commonly used as emergency exits. It consists of a central
post supporting a series of steps arranged in the form of a spiral. At the end of steps
continuous hand rail is provided. Such stairs are provided where space available for stairs is
very much limited. Cast iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for building these stairs.

( f ) Turning Stairs: Apart from dog legged and open newel type turns, stairs may turn in
various forms. They depend upon the available space for stairs. Quarter turned, half turned
with few steps in between and bifurcated stairs are some of such turned stairs.
Functions: -
 To provide vertical circulation, enabling movement between different levels of a building.
 To serve as an emergency access and exit route during fires or other emergencies.
 To connect different functional spaces, such as floors, mezzanines, and rooftops.
 To act as a structural element that carries the weight of users and distributes it to
supporting structures.
 To enhance the aesthetic appeal of a space through design and materials used.
 To provide accessibility and comfort through ergonomic design, such as appropriate tread
and riser dimensions.
 To offer safety features, including handrails, non-slip surfaces, and proper lighting to
prevent accidents.
 To maximize space, often utilizing the area under the stairs for storage or functional use.

9. Floors
Floors are solid constructions which divide a building into different level surfaces capable of
supporting the occupants of a building, furniture, equipment’s etc. The floors are classified as
ground floor and upper floors. The floor resting directly on ground surface is known as
ground floor while other floors of each storey, situated above the ground level are termed as
upper floors.
The type of flooring depends upon the selection of materials. The materials for flooring are
selected considering the factors such as the initial cost of building, type of building,
appearance, cleanliness, durability, damp resistance, sound insulation, thermal insulation, fire
resistance, etc.

Types of flooring: -
(i) Mud Flooring: This is commonly used in Indian villages. It's affordable, sturdy, relatively
impervious, and simple to construct and maintain. For constructing a mud floor, a 25 mm
thick layer of selected, moist earth is spread over a prepared bed and then rammed well.

(ii) Flagstone Flooring: This involves thin stone slabs laid on a concrete bedding. Typical
stone slab dimensions are 30 cm x 30 cm, 45 cm x 45 cm, and 60 cm x 60 cm.

(iii) Brick Flooring: This type of flooring is used in low-cost construction and is suitable for
warehouses, stores, and godowns. Well-burnt bricks with good colour and uniform shapes are
used. The bricks can be laid either flat or on edge, arranged in aesthetically pleasing patterns.

(iv) Cement Concrete Flooring: Commonly utilized in residential, commercial, and

industrial buildings, this flooring is affordable, durable, and straightforward to construct. It
comprises a base layer (7.5–10 cm thick) made with lean cement concrete or lime-concrete,
and a wearing surface of 1:2:4 cement concrete about 4 cm thick, laid in panels (usually 1 m
x 1 m or 2 m x 2 m).

(v) Terrazzo Flooring: This is a specialized concrete flooring where marble chips are used
as aggregates. Polishing with carborundum stones results in a smooth finish. It is ideal for
banks, hotels, and public buildings. Different colours can be achieved by using varying
marble chip colours.
(vi) Mosaic Flooring: Consisting of small marble pieces or decorative aggregates arranged in
patterns, it involves layering cement mortar and a cementing material mixed with marble
pieces, followed by drying, polishing, and smoothing. It is known for its decorative appeal.

(vii) Tiled Flooring: Constructed using tiles made from clay, cement, concrete, or terrazzo,
this flooring is versatile and used in residential and public spaces. Tiles are available in
various shapes, sizes, and thicknesses and laid on bedding mortar (lime mortar 1:3, with 25–
30 cm thickness).

(viii) Marble Flooring: Typically used in premium spaces like hospitals, temples, and
theatres, it involves laying marble slabs over a base of cement mortar. Grinding and polishing
are done to achieve a smooth, shining surface.

(ix) Timber Flooring: Ideal for spaces like dance halls and auditoriums, timber flooring is
costly and adds a unique aesthetic.

Functions: -
 To provide a stable and level surface for occupants and activities.
 To distribute loads from people, furniture, and equipment to the structural frame.
 To divide the building into usable levels or storeys.
 To offer thermal and sound insulation between different floors.
 To enhance the aesthetic appeal of interior spaces.
 To ensure hygiene and ease of cleaning through appropriate floor finishes.
 To provide a durable surface resistant to wear, moisture, and impact.
 To support the installation of utilities like wiring, plumbing, and underfloor systems.

10. Doors
A door may be defined as a barrier which can be opened and secured in wall opening. Door is
provided to give an access to the inside of a room of a building. It serves as a connecting link
between the various internal units of a building.
Door consists of two parts door frame and door shutter. The door shutter is held in position by
door frame which is fixed in wall opening.

The different types of doors are as follows -

(i) Flush Doors - Flush doors are popular now-a-days because of their pleasing appearance,
simplicity of construction, better strength, less cost and greater durability. These are used for
both residential, public and commercial buildings.
Flush doors are of two types as -
(a) Solid core or laminated core
Solid core or laminated core flush door consists of the wooden frame consisting of stiles, top
and bottom rails is used for holding the core. The core consists either of core-strips of timber
glued together under great pressure and faced on 1 each side by plywood sheets, or of block
board or particle board, faced with plywood sheets. In each type of core, plywood sheets are
glued together under pressure to the assembly of core housed in the frame on both the faces.
(b) Hollow core and cellular core.
A hollow core flush door consists of frame made up of stiles, top rail, bottom rail and
minimum two intermediate rails. The inner space of frame is provided with equally spaced
battens of minimum 25 mm width, such that area of voids is limited to 500 sq. cm.
Cellular core flush door consists of a frame of stiles, top rail and bottom rail, each of a
minimum 75 mm width, with the void space filled with equidistant battens of wood of
plywood each of 25 mm width. The battens are so arranged that the void space does not
exceed 25 sq. cm in area. The total area of voids does not exceed 40 percent of the area of
shutter.

(ii) Collapsible Steel Doors - These doors neither require hinges for opening and closing the
shutters nor any frame for hanging them. These doors are extensively used for main entrance
of residential buildings, shops, garages, public buildings, sheds, godowns, etc., where the
width of the door is large and the space is insufficient to provide two leafed hinged shutters.
These doors being very strong, can be used in exposed situations to safeguard against
burglars. These doors may be made of single or double shutters depending upon the size of
the opening.
These doors are fabricated from vertical pieces of rolled steel channels, 16 mm to 20 mm
wide, joined together with the hollows of the channels on the inside, leaving a vertical gap
between them of 12 to 20 mm. Rollers are provided both at their top and bottom or at the top
only in special cases. The doors can be opened or closed by a slight pull or push. The vertical
channel pieces are spaced at 10 to 12 cm centre to centre and are joined to one another by
means of hoop iron cross pieces or flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick which allow
the door to open or fold.

Functions: -
 To provide access and egress to different rooms or areas within a building.
 To enhance privacy by controlling the entry and exit of people in specific spaces.
 To provide security by protecting the interior from unauthorized access or intrusion.
 To act as a barrier against weather elements, such as wind, rain, and cold, while
maintaining indoor comfort.
 To contribute to the aesthetic design of a building with various styles, materials, and
finishes.
 To offer sound insulation, reducing noise transmission between rooms or from external
sources.
 To allow for natural light and ventilation through windows or vents integrated into the
door.
 To provide safety in emergencies by enabling quick and clear evacuation routes.

11. Windows
A window is also a barrier secured in a wall opening. Windows consist of two parts: the
window frame and the shutter. The window frames are fixed to the opening in the wall by
means of suitable holdfasts. The shutters are fixed to the window frames. The function of the
window is to admit light and air to the room and to provide an outside view. Windows are
also provided for insulation against heat and sound loss. Size, shape, location, and number of
windows in a room depend upon the size of the room, location of the room, utility of the
room, direction of walls and wind, humidity and temperature, exterior view, and the desire of
the architect.

(i) Louvered Windows - Like louvered or ventilated doors, windows also provide free
passage of air and sufficient light even when closed. Moreover, these windows offer
sufficient privacy and also provide protection against excessive daylight and glare inside
buildings without affecting ventilation. But, because they harbour dust and are difficult to
clean, they are only used for W.C. rooms in private and public buildings, workshops and
schools, etc., where opaque glass louvers are used. The construction of these windows is
similar to that of louvered doors. This type of window consists of a series of louvers (either of
wood, glass or metal) either fixed or moving type, contained in a frame. For economical
construction, the angle of inclination of louvers or blades to the vertical stile is usually kept
45°.

(ii) Dormer Windows - These are the vertical windows built on sloping sides of a pitched
roof. These windows are provided to admit light and air to the rooms or the enclosed space
below the roof slopes. Incidentally, these windows add to the appearance of the building.

(iii) Gable Windows - These windows are provided in the gable ends of a pitched roof. They
are used to admit light and ventilation inside the rooms.
(iv) Bay Windows - These windows project outside the external walls of a room. The
projection thus formed is called a bay. These windows provide an increased area of opening
for admitting more light and ventilation into the room from different directions. Bay windows
also offer additional space in the room and improve the aesthetic appearance of the building.

These windows may be half square, splayed i.e., semi-hexagonal, semi-octagonal or semi-
circular in plan or any other shape. The projection of such a window may start from floor
level or sill level.

(v) Clerestory Windows - These windows are provided near the top of the main roof. The
pivoted windows are used for this purpose. The clerestory windows provide ventilation to the
inside of the room as the front is blocked by the verandah. They also improve the appearance
of the building. Care should be taken to see that the upper part opens inside and the lower part
opens outside. Otherwise, rainwater will accumulate in the room.

Functions:
1. To admit light and air into the room.
2. To provide an outside view.
3. For insulation against heat and sound loss.

12. Sills

Sill is the component of the building provided between the bottom of a window frame and the
wall below it. It protects the top of the wall from wear and tear. Window sills are usually
weathered and throated to throw the rainwater off the face of the wall. To perform this
function effectively, a window sill should project slightly below the inner face of the wall,
and on the underside of the projection, a small groove should be provided.

Functions: -
 To support and frame windows, ensuring proper installation and alignment.
 To prevent water from entering the interior by directing rainwater away from the window.
 To provide a flat, stable surface for placing decorative items, plants, or other objects.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of windows, contributing to the overall architectural
design.
 To help with insulation by preventing drafts and heat loss around the window edges.
 To protect the lower part of the window frame from water damage and decay.
 To serve as a barrier that prevents soil or dirt from accumulating around the window base.

Study of Building Plans

A building plan is a detailed architectural drawing that represents the layout, dimensions, and
structure of a building. It serves as a guide for construction and helps in ensuring compliance
with safety, zoning, and building regulations. It is often known as the blueprint of the
construction site, a building plan helps in visualizing the project before its completion. The
plan must be approved by an architect, civil engineer, or supervisor who possesses the
required qualification and is registered with the town planning and development
department of the civic authority.

Types of building plan

1. Site plan - A site plan is a comprehensive drawing of the building showing the entire
plan of a building. The document depicts the boundaries and access points of the
property site, and any nearby structures relevant to the design.
2. Floor plan - Generally drawn either in a 2D or 3D plane, a floor plan illustrates the
vertical orthographic projection of the building. Additionally, a floor plan shows the
layout of the rooms and highlights the doors, walls, windows, and beams, among
others, with their respective dimensions.
3. Structural plan - This document represents the overall strength of the building by
highlighting its overall structure. A structural plan consists of elements, including
location, nomenclature, placement of the structure, and load-carrying elements of the
building.
4. Terrace Plan - It highlights the roof surface, slope, and roofing material used within
the structure. It also depicts the overhead water tank, stair cabin, lift cabin, and others.
 5. Elevation Plan - The elevation plan is the orthographic projection of the structure,
showing the design of the building from the outside after it is completed. It has three
types: external elevation, internal elevation, and landscape plan.
6. Landscape Plan - This depicts the real-time view of the building along with its
existing landscape. A landscape plan is devised by an expert who uses tools and
colours to show the details of flower beds, parks, and walkways around the
property.

Ventilation
Ventilation: Ventilation may be defined as the system of supplying or removing air by
natural or mechanical means to or from any enclosed space to create and maintain
comfortable conditions. Orientation of the building and the location of windows help in
providing proper ventilation. Placements of windows and ventilators should be such as to
facilitate the flow of fresh air into the house. Louvres in doors and windows are useful for
ventilation. A sensation of comfort, reduction in humidity, removal of heat, and proper
supply of oxygen are the basic requirements in ventilation, apart from the reduction of
dust. Adequate ventilation within a building ensures good air quality by removing toxins
and CO₂, and helps to control humidity, thus reducing the risk of condensation.

Types of Ventilation

1. Natural Ventilation: Suitable for houses and flats, natural ventilation is achieved by
designing windows and ventilators opposite each other. It is preferable to have
smaller, well-separated windows rather than a single large one of the same area.
Openings at a lower level act as inlets for cool, fresh air, while those at a higher level
serve as outlets for warm, stale air.
2. Artificial Ventilation: Necessary in rooms occupied by more than 50 people or
where the space per occupant is less than 3 m³. This method is accomplished in three
ways:

a. Exhaust or Extract System: Removes stale air from the room.

b. Supply or Plenum System: Actively supplies fresh air.
c. Balanced System: A combination of both.

Exhaust fans placed near the ceiling help expel hot air, creating a void that draws in fresh air.
Mechanical devices like fans also assist in ventilation, either independently or in combination
with an exhaust system.

Functions of Ventilation: -
Air distribution: The process of delivering fresh air to all areas and mixing fresh air with
stale air prior to removal from the building.
Air exchange: The cycle of fresh air in, stale air out.

Plumbing

The installation of pipes, fixtures and other apparatus inside a building for bringing in the
water supply and removing liquid and water borne wastes is called plumbing. Good plumbing
provides convenience and comfort to the dwellers and ensures protection of health. Plumbing
system begins at the point where the water enters the building and ends where the waste
water leaves the building.

Objectives of Plumbing
The essential principle of plumbing is to supply water in sufficient quantity at required pressure
to a fixture and to drain out used water from the fixture, through a drain pipe to a point outside
the building. With the increase in fixtures, the number of supply pipes and take off pipes also
increase. Installing them in a proper way without complications such as contamination of water
by backflow, leakage of sewer gas into the building, loss of water seal in the traps is the main
objective of good plumbing.

Components of a Plumbing System:

1. Water Supply System: Carries clean water from the main source to fixtures like taps,
showers, and washing machines.
2. Drainage System: Removes wastewater and sewage from the building through
pipelines.
3. Fixtures & Fittings: Includes sinks, toilets, faucets, and bathtubs.
4. Valves & Pumps: Regulate water flow and pressure.
5. Storage Tanks & Water Heaters: Store and supply hot/cold water as needed.

Types of Plumbing Systems:

1. Direct Plumbing System: Water is supplied directly from the mains to all outlets.
2. Indirect Plumbing System: Water is stored in an overhead tank before distribution.
3. Single Stack System: Uses one vertical pipe for both waste and ventilation.
4. Two-Pipe System: Separates soil and waste pipes for efficient drainage.

Sanitation

Sanitation refers to the installation and maintenance of systems that ensure the safe disposal
of human waste, wastewater, and other refuse to maintain hygiene and prevent diseases. A
well-designed sanitation system protects public health, ensures a clean environment, and
prevents contamination of water sources. The sanitation system begins at the point where
waste is generated and ends at its proper disposal or treatment site.

Objectives of Sanitation
The primary objective of sanitation is to manage waste efficiently, ensuring its safe
collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal without harming human health or the
environment. Proper sanitation systems prevent waterborne diseases, foul odors, and
contamination of drinking water. A well-planned sanitation system should effectively remove
waste, prevent blockages, and minimize environmental pollution.

Components of a Sanitation System:

1. Sewage Collection System: Network of pipes and drains that collect wastewater from
households and buildings.
2. Sewage Treatment Plants: Facilities that treat sewage before its safe disposal into
the environment.
3. Septic Tanks: Underground chambers that treat and decompose waste from buildings
without a centralized sewage system.
4. Manholes & Inspection Chambers: Allow access to underground sewage systems
for maintenance and cleaning.
 5. Ventilation Pipes: Prevent foul odours and allow gases to escape safely.

Types of Sanitation Systems:

1. Conventional Sewer System: Uses underground sewer pipes to transport waste to
treatment plants.
2. Septic System: On-site sewage treatment system commonly used in rural areas.
3. Pit Latrine System: Simple, low-cost solution where waste is collected in a pit and
decomposed naturally.
4. Vacuum Sewer System: Uses air pressure to transport waste, commonly found in
areas with challenging terrain.

Bearing Capacity of Soil

The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the maximum pressure that the soil can safely
withstand without failing or settling excessively. This is a key factor in foundation design.
The allowable bearing capacity is derived by subtracting a safety factor (usually between
3 and 5) from the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil. If the natural soil lacks sufficient
bearing capacity, the ground can be improved, or the load can be distributed over a larger
area using various foundation types such as mat foundations, raft foundations, isolated
footings, combined footings, or strip footings. The safe bearing capacity refers to the
maximum pressure the soil can handle without showing any signs of failure.