ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Villen kayugira lecture notes
STUDY OBJECTIVES
1. Define the endocrine system and hormones
2. List the major endocrine glands
3. Describe their anatomy and blood supply
4. State hormones produced and their functions
5. Explain hormone action and feedback mechanisms
The endocrine system is a network of ductless glands that produce
and release hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate body
functions such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
1. Ductless glands
2. Highly vascular (rich blood supply)
3. Secrete hormones into bloodstream
4. Hormones act on target organs
FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
[Link] of metabolism
✓Controls use of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
✓Maintains basal metabolic rate (BMR)
✓Key hormones: T3, T4, insulin, glucagon
[Link] and development
✓Stimulates growth of bones and muscles
✓Controls body development and puberty
✓Key hormones: Growth hormone (GH), thyroid hormones, sex hormones
[Link] of homeostasis
✓Regulates internal body environment
✓Controls:
• Blood glucose (insulin, glucagon)
• Water balance (ADH)
• Electrolytes (aldosterone)
• Blood pressure
4. Response to stress
❖Prepares body for “fight or flight”
❖Increases heart rate, blood pressure, glucose
❖Key hormones: Adrenaline, cortisol
[Link] of reproduction
❑Controls sexual maturation and reproduction
❑Regulates menstrual cycle and sperm production
❑Supports pregnancy and childbirth
❑Key hormones: Estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, FSH,
LH
[Link] of biological rhythms
➢Regulates sleep–wake cycle (circadian rhythm)
➢Key hormone: Melatonin
[Link] system regulation
• Supports development of immune cells (T-cells)
• Hormones influence immune response
• Key hormone: Thymosin
List of endocrine glands:
[Link]
[Link] gland
[Link] gland
[Link] gland
[Link] glands
[Link]
[Link] glands
[Link] (Islets of Langerhans)
[Link] (Testes
& Ovaries)
1. HYPOTHALAMUS
Anatomy
✓Located in the diencephalon, below the thalamus
✓Connected to pituitary via infundibulum
🩸 Blood Supply
I. Branches of Circle of Willis
II. Hypophyseal portal system
Function
1. Controls pituitary gland
2. Maintains homeostasis (temperature, thirst, hunger)
🧪 Hormones
1. Releasing hormones: TRH, GnRH, CRH (Thyrotropin-Releasing
Hormone (TRH):, Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH):,
Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH):
2. Inhibiting hormones: Dopamine
3. Produces ADH & Oxytocin (stored in posterior pituitary)
2. PITUITARY GLAND (MASTER GLAND)
📍 Anatomy
Located in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
Divided into:
❑Anterior (adenohypophysis)
❑Posterior (neurohypophysis)
🩸 Blood Supply
Superior & inferior hypophyseal arteries
⚙️ Function
Controls other endocrine glands
🧪 Hormones
Anterior:
❑GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, Prolactin
Posterior:
❑ADH (water balance)
❑Oxytocin (uterine contraction, milk ejection)
🦋 3. THYROID GLAND
📍 Anatomy
❖Located in anterior neck
❖Two lobes + isthmus
🩸 Blood Supply
❑Superior thyroid artery (external carotid)
❑Inferior thyroid artery (subclavian)
⚙️ Function
Regulates metabolism
🦋 Thyroid Gland Functions
1. 🔥 Increases metabolism (controls body energy use)
2. 🌡️ Produces heat (maintains body temperature)
3. ❤️ Stimulates heart (↑ heart rate & cardiac output)
4. 🧠 Supports brain development & mental activity
5. 📈 Promotes growth (especially in children)
6. 🍽️ Enhances digestion (↑ appetite & gut movement)
7. 🦴 Regulates calcium (via calcitonin → strengthens bones)
Hormones
I. T3 (Triiodothyronine)
II. T4 (Thyroxine)
III. Calcitonin (↓ blood calcium)
🧩 4. PARATHYROID GLANDS
📍 Anatomy Produces parathyroid hormone
4 small glands behind thyroid (PTH)
🩸 Blood Supply 👉 Increases blood calcium
levels
Inferior thyroid artery
How:
⚙️ Function
🦴 Releases calcium from bones
Regulates calcium levels
🧂 Reduces calcium loss in
🧪 Hormone kidneys
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) → ↑ ☀️ Increases calcium absorption
blood calcium in intestines
❤️ 5. ADRENAL GLANDS
Anatomy 🧪 Hormones
On top of kidneys Cortex:
Two parts: I. Cortisol (stress)
I. Cortex II. Aldosterone (Na⁺ balance)
II. Medulla
III. Androgens
🩸 Blood Supply
Medulla:
Superior, middle, inferior suprarenal
arteries I. Adrenaline
⚙️ Function II. Noradrenaline
Stress response, metabolism, salt
balance
🍬 6. PANCREAS (ISLETS OF LANGERHANS)
📍 Anatomy
Located behind stomach
🩸 Blood Supply
I. Splenic artery
II. Pancreaticoduodenal arteries
⚙️ Function
Regulates blood glucose
🧪 Hormones
I. Insulin (↓ glucose)
II. Glucagon (↑ glucose)
III. Somatostatin
⚧️ 7. GONADS-TESTIS
📍 Anatomy
Located in scrotum
🩸 Blood Supply
Testicular arteries
⚙️ Function
Sperm production
🧪 Hormone
Testosterone
8.👩 Ovaries
📍 Anatomy
Located in pelvis
🩸 Blood Supply
Ovarian arteries
⚙️ Function
Egg production
🧪 Hormones
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone
🌙 9. PINEAL GLAND
📍 Anatomy
• Located in brain (epithalamus) How :
🩸 Blood Supply ❑The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in
the
• Posterior cerebral circulation
❑hypothalamus is the body’s biological
⚙️ Function clock
• Regulates sleep-wake cycle ❑It receives light signals from the eyes
🧪 Hormone (retina)
• Melatonin ❑It determines whether it is day or night
🛡️ 10. THYMUS
📍 Anatomy
• Located in anterior mediastinum
🩸 Blood Supply
• Internal thoracic artery
⚙️ Function
Immune development (T-cells)
🧪 Hormone
• Thymosin
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
Definition
❖A feedback mechanism is a process where the body regulates hormone
levels to maintain balance.
🔽 Negative Feedback (MOST IMPORTANT)
Output of a system inhibits further production
Maintains stable hormone levels👉 Example (Thyroid axis):
Hypothalamus → TRH
Pituitary → TSH
Thyroid → T3, T4↑
T3/T4 → inhibits TRH & TSH
🔼 Positive Feedback (Rare)
❖Output enhances more production
❖Continues until a specific event occurs
👉 Example:
Oxytocin during childbirth → more contractions
ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS
The endocrine system maintains internal balance by regulating:
I. Blood glucose → insulin & glucagon
II. Water balance → ADH
III. Electrolytes → aldosterone
IV. Metabolism → thyroid hormones
V. Blood pressure → adrenal hormones
VI. 👉 Ensures the body remains in a stable condition (homeostasis)