PSYC 314: Psychological Research

Methods
Comprehensive Study Notes
Study Units 1 & 2 | NWU | Dr. Tamlynn Jefferis
Textbook: First Steps in Research (Kobus Maree, Ed.) — any edition

STUDY UNIT 1: Introduction to Research

1.1 What is Research?

Definition: Research is a systematic, step-by-step process of collecting, analysing, and
interpreting data to increase understanding of a phenomenon that is not fully understood
— i.e., to answer the research question that initiated the process.

Goals of Research
• Answer questions
• Gather new information about phenomena
• Test existing interventions
• Design/develop new interventions
• Contribute towards theory and practice
• Add to world knowledge

1.2 The Research Cycle

The research process follows a cyclical, iterative pattern:

Step Description

1. Literature Review Review existing knowledge to identify gaps

2. Purpose Statement Clearly define what the study aims to achieve
3. Design Select the appropriate research methodology
4. Methods of Data Collection Choose tools and instruments for gathering data
5. Ethical Engagement Engage participants ethically and generate data
6. Analyse & Interpret Process and make meaning of the data
7. Draw Conclusions Answer the research question based on findings
1.3 Dimensions of Research
Every research study can be described along six key dimensions:

Dimension Question Asked Focus

1. Why Dimension Why do you want to do this? Scientific gap / Research question
2. What Dimension What do you want to do? Research aim/objective
3. How Dimension How are you going to do it? Methodology / Design
4. Who Dimension Who or what do you need? Population / Participants
5. Where Dimension Where will you do this? Research setting / context
6. Time Dimension When will you do this? Timeline / research period

1.4 Literature Review

Purpose of a Literature Review
• Identify the research topic
• Formulate the research question
• Assess the suitability of the research approach
• Develop the research proposal
• Consider the place of literature and theory in the rationale
• Consider ethical implications

Structure of a Literature Review (Funnel Model)

A literature review moves from broad to specific:
1. Theoretical groundings of your research (broadest)
2. General studies in your field
3. Related studies (closer to your topic)
4. Your specific research puzzle (narrowest)

How to Find Literature

• NWU Library website ([Link] → Library)
• WorldCat Discovery Search
• Google Scholar (via NWU Library portal)
• BrowZine Journals, PressReader, A-Z Resources
Key tip: Use specific keywords as search terms. The more targeted your keywords, the more
relevant your results.

1.5 Inductive vs. Deductive Approaches

Aspect Inductive (Bottom-up) Deductive (Top-down)

Direction Observations → Theory Theory → Hypothesis → Test

 Aspect Inductive (Bottom-up) Deductive (Top-down)

Starting point No existing theory; begin with Start with a pre-existing theory
observations
Nature Open-ended, exploratory Narrowed to specific hypothesis
Researcher stance Unknowing / discovering Testing known framework
Outcome Theory is generated Theory is confirmed, rejected, or
revised
Typical design Qualitative Quantitative

1.6 Research Designs

Design Description Key Features

Quantitative Numerical data; statistical analysis Surveys, questionnaires,

experiments; deductive;
generalisable
Qualitative Words/visuals; meaning-making Interviews, observations;
inductive; context-rich
Mixed Methods Combines quantitative + qualitative Triangulation of data; broader
understanding

1.7 The Role of the Social Researcher

• Make sense of social life scientifically
• Develop and test theory
• Contribute to understandings of global issues
• Understand various cultures and ways of being
• Develop, evaluate, and improve interventions
• Investigate causes of and solutions to social problems
• Work scientifically AND ethically (protect vulnerable groups)

1.8 Sampling
Population: A large collection of individuals that are the focus of the scientific inquiry.
Sample: A subset of the population. The sample must contain similar characteristics to the
population so results can be generalised.

Type Description When to Use

Probability Sampling Participants randomly selected; When results need to be

population divided by generalisable; quantitative
characteristics research
Non-Probability Participants purposively selected; When specific characteristics
Sampling very specific participants chosen are needed; qualitative
research
STUDY UNIT 2: Introduction to Qualitative Research

2.1 The Social Constructivist / Interpretivist Worldview

Qualitative research is guided by the Interpretivist / Social Constructivist paradigm. This
worldview holds that:
• What we see, understand, and experience determines how we interpret the world
• What we see varies from person to person
• Meaning is, therefore, complex
• Subjective experience informs meaning
• There is no single, objective truth
• To understand what others understand, we must interact with them
• Meaning is constructed through interaction and sharing of interpretations
• To generate theory, we need to understand how a particular group or person makes
sense of a phenomenon

Core focus: Understanding how participants understand a phenomenon. There are NO

preconceived answers.

Definition of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a systematic process of collecting, analysing, and interpreting
visual or narrative data (pictures or words) to increase understanding of a phenomenon
that is not fully understood.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Characteristic Explanation

Natural setting Research occurs in the natural environment of participants

(naturalistic study)
Researcher = key instrument The researcher is the primary data collection tool; their
situatedness/subjectivity matters and must be declared
Focus on participants' The goal is to understand how participants interpret their own
meanings experiences
Deeper understanding Seeks depth rather than breadth of understanding
Emergent design The research design can evolve/adapt as data is collected —
not rigidly fixed upfront

Important: Because the researcher IS the instrument, they must declare their subjectivity and
assumptions (their 'situatedness') upfront.

2.2 Qualitative Research Designs (Strategies of Inquiry)

Different situations call for different qualitative designs. The researcher = central instrument
in all of these.

Design When Appropriate Key Features

Ethnography Studying a culture-sharing group Long-term access; field notes;

(e.g., family, tribe, school) to observation; interviews;
understand a larger cultural issue documents; extended immersion
Case Study Detailed study of a bounded system Multiple data sources;
(activity, event, process, or contextualisation; observations +
individual/s) to understand a larger interviews + documents +
issue artefacts
Narrative Research People's stories/life stories provide Chronological stories; re-storying;
understanding of a phenomenon interview-like; participants willing
to share
Phenomenological Many people's experiences of a Access to several individuals with
Study phenomenon provide deeper same experience; compare
understanding of that phenomenon experiences; interviews +
documents
Grounded Theory No existing theory exists; aim is to Rigorous, iterative procedures;
generate theory emergence of conceptual
categories; theory development
Action Research Researcher aims to solve a Participatory; cyclical;
practical problem while generating collaborative with
knowledge community/participants
Historical Research Understanding the past to explain Analysis of historical documents,
the present or future artefacts, records
Visual Participatory Participants use visual methods to Photographs, drawings, video;
express their realities participant-driven data creation

Application Scenarios — Worked Examples

Practice identifying the correct design from a description:
Scenario 1: 10 foreign nationals in Soweto share experiences of xenophobic attacks in
interviews, with confidentiality required. → Phenomenological Study (shared experiences
of a phenomenon; multiple participants)
Scenario 2: Two girls rescued from human trafficking studied in depth alongside families,
social workers, and NGO staff. → Case Study (bounded system; multiple data sources;
contextualised)
Scenario 3: Researcher lives with Basotho people in Lesotho for 9 months to understand
their daily practices and beliefs. → Ethnography (culture-sharing group; long-term
immersion; field observations)

2.3 Non-Probability Sampling in Qualitative Research

Important note: Qualitative research ONLY uses non-probability sampling strategies.
 Sampling Strategy Description Best Used When

Purposive Sampling Participants are recruited based on You need participants with
specific inclusion criteria related to particular characteristics or
the research question experiences
Snowball Sampling Existing participants refer others The population is 'hidden' or
who might be eligible; sample hard to reach (e.g.,
'grows' like a snowball undocumented immigrants,
victims of abuse)
Convenience Sampling The most accessible available Ideal population is
sample is chosen when the ideal inaccessible; a similar,
population cannot be reached accessible group is available
Quota Sampling Participants are recruited until a A specific number of
specific number (quota) is reached participants is required for the
study

2.4 Traditional Qualitative Data Collection Methods

1. Interviews
Type Description When to Use

Unstructured Conversational; no fixed questions; Exploring new/sensitive topics;

guided by participant's responses narrative/life-story research
Semi-structured Has a guide/schedule but allows for Most common; balances depth
follow-up and flexibility with consistency across
participants
Structured Fixed questions asked in fixed Comparative studies; when
order; minimal deviation consistency across all interviews
is essential

2. Focus Groups
• Group discussion (usually 6–10 participants)
• Researcher facilitates; group dynamics generate data
• Best for: exploring shared views, norms, and community understanding
• Limitation: individual voices may be dominated by group dynamics

3. Observation
• Researcher observes participants in their natural setting
• Can be participant (researcher joins) or non-participant (observer only)
• Used in ethnography, case studies, and action research

Other (Innovative) Qualitative Methods

• Draw-and-Talk / Draw-and-Write — especially useful with children
• Photo Elicitation — participants discuss/explain photographs
• Digital Stories — participants create short videos about their experiences
 • World Café — structured conversation with rotating groups on a topic

Quick Reference: Key Terms Glossary

Term Definition

Research A systematic process of collecting, analysing, and

interpreting data to increase understanding of a
phenomenon
Inductive reasoning Bottom-up; moves from observations to theory; used in
qualitative research
Deductive reasoning Top-down; starts with theory and tests it; used in
quantitative research
Quantitative research Research involving numerical data and statistical analysis
Qualitative research Research involving narrative/visual data aimed at
understanding meaning
Mixed methods Research combining both quantitative and qualitative
approaches
Population The entire group that is the focus of a study
Sample A subset of the population selected for the study
Probability sampling Random selection; results can be generalised; used in
quantitative research
Non-probability sampling Purposive/targeted selection; used in qualitative research
Purposive sampling Selecting participants based on specific inclusion criteria
Snowball sampling Participants refer others; used for hidden/hard-to-reach
populations
Constructivism / Interpretivism The philosophical paradigm of qualitative research; no
single truth; meaning is constructed
Situatedness The researcher's background, assumptions, and
subjectivity that must be declared
Ethnography Long-term study of a culture-sharing group in their natural
setting
Case study In-depth study of a bounded system using multiple data
sources
Phenomenology Study of shared experiences of a phenomenon across
multiple participants
Narrative research Study using participants' life stories to understand a
phenomenon
Grounded theory Research design that generates new theory through
iterative data analysis
Thematic analysis A method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns
(themes) in qualitative data
 Term Definition

Trustworthiness The qualitative equivalent of validity and reliability; includes

credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability

Exam Tips & Study Strategies

Likely Exam Question Types

• Define key concepts (research, qualitative research, sampling types)
• Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning
• Identify the correct research design from a scenario description
• Justify why a specific sampling method is appropriate
• Describe the research cycle steps in order
• Explain the interpretivist/social constructivist worldview

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

• Don't confuse inductive (qualitative) with deductive (quantitative)
• Don't say quantitative research uses purposive sampling — only qualitative does
• Remember: in qualitative research, the researcher IS the instrument
• Don't forget to state the researcher must declare their situatedness/subjectivity
• In scenario questions — look for keywords: 'experiences' → phenomenology;
'culture/group' → ethnography; 'life stories' → narrative; 'bounded system' → case
study; 'new theory' → grounded theory

Memory Aid: Qualitative Design Keywords

Keyword in scenario → Design

'Experiences of a phenomenon' / 'meaning → Phenomenological study

given to' / multiple people
'Culture', 'tribe', 'community', 'long-term', → Ethnography
'immersion'
'Stories', 'life history', 'chronological', 'narrative' → Narrative research
'Bounded', 'specific case', 'detailed', 'multiple → Case study
sources'
'No existing theory', 'generate theory', 'iterative' → Grounded theory

Good luck with your studies! — PSYC 314, NWU, 2026