Module 5: Aggression

Aggression is behavior, verbal or physical, intended to physically hurt or harm in some other
way another person or thing.

Two important definitions of aggression are as follows :

●​ According to Dollard et al., aggression can be defined as “a behaviour whose goal is
the injury of the person towards whom it is directed”. Supposedly this includes
physical and verbal aggression.
●​ Baron and Bryne has defined aggression in the following words “aggression is any
form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living
being who is motivated to avoid such treatment”.

Aggression is defined as behavior aimed at causing harm or pain, psychological harm, or

personal injury or physical distraction. An important aspect of aggressive behavior is the
intention underlying the actor's behavior. Not all behaviors resulting in harm are considered
aggression. For example, a doctor who makes an injection that harms people, but who did so
with the intent of preventing the further spread of illness, is not considered to have committed
an aggressive act.
Aggression can be direct or indirect, active or passive, and physical or verbal.

Perspectives on Aggression:
The term Perspective means viewpoint. Perspectives on Aggression mean different
viewpoints on aggression or theories of aggression. It deals with the views of different
researchers as to the reasons concerning why human beings aggress against others. There are
many different perspectives on aggression.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
The three most common perspectives are as follows:
●​ The Role of Biological Factors : From Instincts to Evolutionary Perspective.
●​ Drive Theories: The Motive to Harm Others.
 ●​ Modern Theories of Aggression: The Social Learning Perspective and The General
Aggression Model. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
The Role of Biological Factors:

From Instincts to Evolutionary Perspective: One of the important debatable issues has been
what role do instincts or genetic factors play in aggression. One view holds that human
beings are genetically programmed for aggression and violence.

Views of Sigmund Freud: One of the earliest instinct theories was given by Sigmund Freud
which held the view that human violence stems from built-in (i.e., inherited) tendencies to
aggress against others. He held the view that human aggression is instinctive.

Freud believed that the individual has two basic instinctive drives:

●​ Eros (or libido or life instinct) and

●​ Thanatos or death instinct. ​
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He called the instinct to live and obtain pleasure libido or eros and gave the name Thanatos to
the death drive. When thanatos dominates, the result is self-punishment and suicide.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
According to this viewpoint aggression springs mainly from a built in fighting instinct that
humans share with many other species. Presumably, this instinct developed during the course
of evolution because it yielded many benefits. For example fighting serves to disperse
populations over a wide area, thus, ensuring maximum use of available resources. And since
it is often closely related to mating, such behaviour often helps to strengthen the genetic make
up of a species by assuring that only the strongest and most vigorous individuals manage to
reproduce.

Konrad Lorenz on Aggression: Konrad Lorenz held the view that instinct to aggress is
common to many animal species. Lorenz, however, differs from Freud, since he states that
aggressive behaviour will not occur unless it is triggered by external cues. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Instinct view Rejected by Social Psychologists: Most Social Psychologists rejected the
instinctive theories of aggression. According to them, it is difficult to give a genetic
explanation of human aggression because aggression in human beings is expressed in many
different forms. How can such a huge variation be caused by genetic factors? Secondly, the
genetic theory of aggression is weak because all societies are not equally aggressive. The
frequency of aggressive actions varies tremendously across human societies, so that it is
much more likely to occur in some than in others. Do biologically inherited tendencies
toward aggression actually exist among human beings?​ ​
The present day Social Psychologists generally conclude that genetic and biological
factors play little if any role in human aggression.
​ ​ ​ ​
Evolutionary Perspective: Evolutionary perspective to a great extent believes that human
aggression is adaptive in nature and that aggressive acts help individuals to preserve their
genetic material. Studies of mate selection among human beings as well as aggression among
animals have revealed that aggression confers many evolutionary advantages among
individuals of a given species and helps them to successfully survive and adapt to their
environment.

Drive Theories:

The Motive to Harm Others: Drive theories suggest that aggression originates from external
conditions that give rise to the motive to harm or injure others. In other words, drive theories
suggest that various external conditions (frustration, physical pain, loss of face) serve to
arouse a strong motive to engage in harm- producing behaviour and such aggressive drive, in
turn then leads to the performance of overt assaults against others. One important drive
theory of aggression was presented by Dollard et al., called as Frustration-Aggression
Hypothesis.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis: This hypothesis was proposed by Dollard et. al., (1939),
at Yale University. They stated that aggression is always a consequence of frustration and that
frustration always leads to some kind of aggression. In short, it held that frustrated people
always engage in some type of aggression and that all acts of aggression result from some
type of frustration. Critics have objected to both the portions of the frustration aggression
hypothesis.
 First, it is now clear that frustrated individuals do not always respond to thwarting
aggressive thoughts, words or deeds. Rather, they may actually show a wide variety of
reactions, ranging from resignation and despair on the one hand to attempts to overcome the
source of their frustration on the other. In many cases, it appears that the most likely reaction
to powerful frustration is depression, not overt acts of aggression (Bandura 1973).

Second, all aggression does not result from frustration. People aggress for many different
reasons and in response to many different factors. For example boxers hit and sometimes
injure their opponents because it is a part of their job to do so, not because they are frustrated.
Soldiers often attack and kill others out of a sense of patriotism or simply because it is their
duty. Public executioners as well as hired assassins regularly kill individuals they do not
know simply because they are being paid to carry out these actions. Thus, all aggression is
not a result of frustration.

Social Psychologists have largely rejected this theory.

Modern Theories of Aggression:

The Social Learning Perspective and The General Aggression Model: The two most well
known modern theories of aggression are the social learning perspective and The General
Aggression Model.

The Social Learning Perspective: This is one of the most popular theories of aggression.
According to it aggression, like other complex forms of social behaviour, is largely learned.
The theoretical position that aggression is learned social behaviour has been presented in the
writings of Bandura (1973), Baron (1977) and Zillmann (1979). The social learning theories
have basically attempted to see how social models lead to aggression. They have studied the
effect of viewing violence, especially televised violence. The social learning view of
aggression also states that through direct and vicarious experience we also learn. ​ ​
​
​ ​ ​ ​
●​ How to attack others (For, e.g., through guns, blows, sticks, etc.).​
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 ●​ Which persons or groups are appropriate targets for aggression?​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ What actions by others either justify or actually require aggression, retaliation and.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ What situations or contexts are ones in which aggression is appropriate or
inappropriate. ​
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Social learning perspective suggests that whether a specific person will aggress in a given
situation depends on many factors, including an individual’s past experience, the current
rewards associated with past or present aggression and attitudes and values that shape an
individual’s thoughts concerning the appropriateness and potential effects of such behaviour.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Another mechanism through which aggression is learnt, according to social learning theory, is
imitation or modelling. Children are prone to initiate the behaviours of other persons,
especially the persons whom they like or admire. Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961, 1963)
conducted a number of studies to illustrate the fact that children learn to aggress by imitation.
In their study, nursery school children first observed a model aggressively playing with an
inflated plastic clown (a Bobo doll). The model hit the doll, beat it and kicked it. After
watching the model, the children were put in a room with several toys; one of the toys being
the Bobo doll. The behaviour of the children was carefully observed. Bandura and his
associates were able to study different types of model by varying the characteristics of the
model. In their study, Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) clearly demonstrated that the children
tended to imitate the same-sex models, that is, boys imitated the male model and the girls
imitated the female model. In another study, Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) had groups of
children, who watched a real-life adult, an adult in film or a cartoon figure aggressing against
a Bobo doll. Subsequently, the children were intentionally frustrated and put in a room with a
Bobo doll. Results revealed that the children, who had watched an aggressive model, whether
real life or filmed, showed more aggression against the Bobo doll than did the children who
had not. Not only that, the children aggressed in a more or less similar way as displayed by
the model.

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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
The General Aggression Model: The general model of aggression was presented by a group
of researchers, chief among them is Anderson (1997, 2002). According to this model
aggression is a result of a combination of two factors: (a) situational factors and (b) personal
factors.

a) Factors relating to the current situation (situational factors):

​ ​ ​
●​ Frustration.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Some kind of provocation from another person (e.g., insult),​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Exposure to other people behaving aggressively (aggressive models – real or those
shown in the media),​
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●​ Anything that causes individuals to experience discomfort – such as high temperature,
dentist injection / drill, extremely boring lecture ​
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b) Factors relating to the people involved (personal factors):

​These factors include individual differences of different types which we find among people.
Some of the personal factors that can cause aggression in us are as follows:​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

●​ Traits that predispose some individuals towards aggression (such as high irritability,
antisocial personality, impulsivity, etc.).​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Attitudes and beliefs about violence (e.g., believing that it is acceptable and
appropriate).​
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 ●​ A tendency to perceive hostile intentions in other’s behaviour and​
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●​ Specific skills related to aggression (e.g., knowing how to fight or how to use various
weapons. ​
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According to the General Aggression Model, these situational and individual (personal
factors) variables lead to overt aggression through their impact on three basic processes: ​
​ ​ ​ ​

●​ Arousal: They may increase physical arousal or excitement.

●​ Affective States: They can arouse hostile feelings and outwards signs of these (e.g.,
angry facial expressions) and;
●​ Cognitions: They can induce individuals to think hostile thoughts or can bring beliefs
and attitudes about aggression to mind.

​ ​ ​
Causes of Human Aggression: Social, Cultural, Personal, and Situational

Human aggression is a result of many causes acting in combination. The four most important
causes of human aggression are as follows :

●​ Social causes of Aggression

●​ Cultural causes of Aggression
●​ Personal causes of Aggression and
●​ Situational causes of Aggression

​ ​ ​ ​

Social causes of Aggression:

The following are the important social causes of aggression.

1.​ Frustration:Frustration is one important and powerful cause of aggression.

Frustration can arise due to many factors such as environmental or natural calamities,
accidents, personal limitations, lack of aptitude, others ill intentions, etc.

The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that;

a) Frustration always leads to some form of aggression; and

b) Aggression always stems from frustration.

Recently Berkowitz (1989) has proposed a revised version of the frustration-aggression

hypothesis. According to this view, frustration is an aversive, unpleasant experience, and
frustration leads to aggression because of this fact. The frustration aggression viewpoint also
helps to explain why unexpected frustration and frustration that is viewed as illegitimate or
unjustified produce stronger aggression than frustration that is expected or legitimate.

For e.g., an employee who has been abruptly terminated from service without a reasonable
and proper explanation will feel that his termination is illegitimate and unjustified. Such an
individual will develop hostile thoughts, experience intense anger and seek revenge against
the perceived source of frustration (in this case the employer). This is due to the fact that
unexpected or illegitimate frustration generates a greater amount of negative affect than
frustration that is expected or viewed as legitimate.
​ ​ ​ ​

2.​ Provocation: This is another major cause of aggression. Direct provocation leads to
anger. Research studies suggest that direct provocation from others, either physical or
verbal, often play a powerful role in eliciting overt aggression.

Not everybody reacts to provocation with aggression, whether we would react to provocation
with aggression is influenced by many factors. One such factor is our attributions concerning
provocation. For e.g., when we conclude that provocation from another person was intended,
i.e., purposely performed, we become angry and engage in strenuous efforts to reciprocate.
However, on the other hand if we conclude that provocation was unintended i.e., due to the
result of accident or factors beyond other’s control, we are much less likely to lose our
temper and behave aggressively. Thus, attributions concerning the causes behind the
provocative actions of others play an important role in determining how aggressively we
would react.

Kinds of Provocation:

Three important types of provocation that leads to aggression are as follows:

●​ Condescension: Expression of arrogance or disdain on the part of others

●​ Harsh and Unjustified Criticism: Harsh and Unjustified Criticism, Especially
criticism that attacks us rather than our behaviour.
●​ Teasing: Provoking statements that point to an individual’s flaws and imperfections.
Teasing can range from mild, humorous remarks and humorous nicknames to
comments that are designed to hurt and insult others. Research findings indicate that
the more individuals attribute teasing to hostile motives – a desire to embrass or
annoy them – the more likely they are to respond aggressively.

Gender differences in Provocation: Two important gender differences in provocation are as

follows:

●​ Females were found to become much angrier as compared to males with respect to
condescending actions—one’s in which the other person showed arrogance or
 suggested that he/she was superior in some manner.​

●​ Females were also found to become angrier in situations where someone hurt
someone else and in situations where one was insensitive to others. ​
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3.​ Exposure to Media Violence: Exposure to media violence increases aggression in
individuals. A large number of research studies have conclusively demonstrated that
exposure to aggressive models stimulate similar behaviour among observers.
Similarly, research studies have also conclusively shown that exposure to violence in
the mass media (films and TV), increases aggression by viewers.

Some important findings of the various research studies with respect to exposure to media
violence and aggression are as follows: ​ ​ ​

●​ Research on exposure to violent television, movies, video games and music indicates
that such material significantly increases the likelihood of aggressive behaviour by
people exposed to them.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Such effects are both short term and long term in nature.​

●​ The magnitude of these effects is large, real and long lasting.

●​ It has been found that the more violent films or television programs participants
watched as children, the higher their levels of aggression as teenagers or adults are.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ In a recent study Bartholow et al (2006) have found that individuals who reported that
they had often played violent video games in the past directed more aggression
against another person who had done nothing to provoke them than people who had
rarely played such games. The more participants in the study had played violent video
games in the past, the stronger the aggression they directed to their “opponent” on
trials when they won. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Exposure to media violence enhances aggression because it desensitizes an individual to

aggressive acts and makes the individual aggress against others with increasing intensity.
 4.​ Violent Pornography: It means viewing sex films involving violence. A large number
of research studies also indicate that violent pornography leads to aggressive
behaviour. Exposure to violent pornography increases the tendency of males to
aggress against females. Combination of explicit sexual content and violence against
women is potentially dangerous. It makes men aggressive. Exposure to violent
pornography also leads to a desensitizing effect in which viewers react less negatively
to the violence in these films as they watch more and more of them.

Research studies have shown that prolonged exposure to scenes depicting sexual violence
toward females (several hours of viewing such films), both men and women report more
callous attitudes toward such actions. They perceive crimes such as rape as less serious,
report less sympathy toward rape victims, indicate greater acceptance of false beliefs about
rape (e.g., the myth that many women really want to be ravaged) and become more accepting
of bizarre forms of pornography.

Cultural Causes of Aggression:

Cultural factors also considerably influence aggression. Certain cultural practices with
respect to honour, sexuality, etc., are filled with violence and aggression.

An important concept in this area is “Cultures of Honour”. It refers to those cultures in

which there are strong norms indicating that aggression is an appropriate response to insults
to one’s honour. In North India (especially Haryana), among the Rajputs, where such a
culture is prevalent, incidents of Honour killings/punishments are fairly common, where the
girl and sometimes the girl and the boy are both killed or punished by the family and/or
community for engaging in an intercaste/interfaith relationships. Thus, in ‘cultures of honor’
there are strong norms suggesting that insults to one’s honour must be avenged through
aggression.

Sexual Jealously: Social psychological research as well as observation of scholars like

Shakespeare and Freud have pointed out that sexual jealousy is one of the most potential
causes of aggression. Sexual jealousy can be defined as the perception of a threat to a
romantic relationship by a rival for one’s partner. Research studies by Buss et al.,(1992).
Parrot, (1991); and Sharpsteen, (1991) have demonstrated that individuals who feel that their
lover has “done them wrong” by flirting with another person often experience strong feelings
of anger and frequently think about or actually engage in actions designed to punish their
lover, the rivals, or both. Some studies have found that most of the blame is on one’s lover
rather than the rival.

It has also been found (Paul et al., 1993) that females experience stronger feelings of anger at
both the partner and the rival than males do and they are more likely to react aggressively to
such betrayals.

Personal Causes of Aggression:

Many personal factors contribute towards aggression, some of which includes:

●​ PersonalityFactors​
​ ​
●​ Type A Behaviour Pattern​
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●​ Narcissism and Ego Threat​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Sensation Seeking​
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●​ Gender Differences ​
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1.​ Personality Factors: Many personality factors interact in complex ways with a given
situational variable to determine how aggressively an individual reacts to a given
 situation. One such model is called the TASS Model: The traits as Situational
Sensitivities Model. It suggests that many personality traits function in a threshold-like
manner, influencing behaviour only when situations evoke them. For example, in
people high in traits of aggressiveness, even a moderate level of provocation would
trigger intense aggressive reactions. On the other hand for people low in traits of
aggressiveness, a moderate provocation would trigger little or no aggression. Only a
strong provocation would result in overt aggression.

2.​ Type A Behaviour Pattern: The Term type A was introduced by Friedman and
Rosenman to describe an individual’s set of personality characteristics.

The Type A behaviour pattern is a pattern of behaviour consisting primarily of high levels of
competitiveness, time urgency and hostility. The Type A personalities are highly competitive,
achievement oriented and always worried about time. They take too many activities at hand
and always work against the pressure of time. Type A individuals are prone to aggressive and
hostile behaviours. Type A individuals are hostile because aggressing against others is a
useful means for reaching one's goals, such as furthering one’s career or winning in athletic
competitions (This is called instrumental aggression). Type A individuals also engage in
hostile aggression i.e., aggression whose prime purpose is that of inflicting pain and suffering
on the victims. It has been found that Type A’s are more likely than Type B’s to engage in
such actions as child abuse or spouse abuse (Strube et al, 1984).

3.​ Narcissism and Ego Threat : The term Narcissism is derived from the story of a
character from Greek mythology. Narcissus fell in love with his own reflection in the
water and drowned trying to reach it. His name has now become a synonym for
excessive self-love.

Narcissistic individuals are highly self- centered and hold an over-inflated view of one’s own
virtues or accomplishments. It has been found that high levels of Narcissism are associated
with aggressive behavior. Bushman and Baumeister (1998) found that individuals who have
high levels of Narcissism often react with exceptionally high levels of aggression to slights
from others, i.e., feedback that threatens their inflated self-image. They also react in an
aggressive manner to mild provocations because they believe that they are much better than
other people and as a result, perceive mild critical comments from others as strong slurs on
their inflated self-image. Due to their inflated self- image narcissistic individuals perceive
themselves to be victims of transgressions (wrong doings).

4.​ Sensation Seeking : Sensation seeker is one personality characteristic. Individuals

who are described as sensation seekers are ones who are highly impulsive,
adventurous, seek new experiences and get bored quickly. These individuals seek
exciting events having an element of risk in it. They are also less inhibited. According
to Zuckerman such individuals are high in aggression.

Those who are high in sensation seeking are found to be highly aggressive due to following
reasons:

●​ They experience anger and hostile feelings in higher amounts as compared to others.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Their emotions are easily aroused.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ They have lower thresholds for becoming angry.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Moreover, their tendencies to get bored and to seek exciting new experiences may
lead them to have more hostile thoughts. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

4. Gender Differences: Research studies have shown that there are sex differences in
aggression. Males are found to be more aggressive than females. Statistical data indicates that
males are more likely than females to be arrested for violent acts.

Harris (1994) in his research study found that males have indulged in a wide range of
aggressive actions as compared to females.

Some important research findings with respect to gender differences in aggression are as
follows :
 ●​ Males are significantly more likely than females to aggress against others when the
provocation for aggression was absent.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Gender differences tend to shrink or even disappear when there is provocation.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Gender differences are also found with respect to types of aggression. Males are more
likely than females to engage in various forms of physical aggression such as kicking,
punching, hitting and use of weapons. On the other hand women are found to indulge
more in verbal assaults. It has been further found that females engage in forms of
aggression that make it difficult for victims to identify the aggressor or even to realize
that they have been the targets of aggressive behaviour.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Males and females also differ with respect to one form of aggression called sexual
coercion. It involves words and deeds designed to overcome a partner’s objections to
engaging in sexual behavior and they can range from verbal tactics such as false
statements of love to threats of harm and actual physical force. It has been found
(Mussweiler and Forster 2000, Hogben et al 2001) that males are far more likely to
indulge in sexual coercion as compared to females. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ Research findings indicate that males are more likely than females to engage in
various forms of direct aggression - actions aimed directly at the target and which
clearly stem from the aggressor, e.g., physical assaults, pushing, shoving, throwing
something at another person, shouting, making insulting remarks, etc. Females were
found to indulge more in indirect forms of aggression - actions that allow the
aggressor to conceal his/her identity from the victim, and which, in some cases, make
it difficult for the victim to know that they have been the target of intentional
[Link] actions include; spreading vicious rumors about the target person,
gossiping behind this person’s back, telling others not to associate with the intended
victim, making up stories to get them in trouble, etc. ​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Situational Causes of Aggression:

There are many Situational factors that influence aggressive behavior. Situational forces
refers to the context in which the aggression occurs and whether it is viewed as acceptable in
a given culture or not. There are many situational factors that influence aggression.

The two most important situational factors that can influence aggression are as follows:

●​ Heat (Temperature)​
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●​ Alcohol ​

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1.​ Heat (Temperature): Social psychological researchers have found a close connection
between temperature (heat) and aggression. Some earliest classic studies in this area
were conducted in the 1970s by Baron (1972) and his associates (Baron and Lawton,
1972). Their results indicated that heat increases aggression, but only up to a point.
Beyond some level, people become so uncomfortable that they lack the energy for
engaging in aggression or any other kind of vigorous activity. Paul Bell and Baron
(1975) have presented a negative affect escape model to explain this phenomenon.
According to them aggression did increase as temperatures rose into the mid-80s
Fahrenheit, but then dropped off at higher levels.

Recently Anderson, Bushman and Groom (1997) obtained correlation between temperature
and violent crimes. These researchers collected average annual temperatures for 50 cities in
the USA over a 45-year period (1950 – 1995). In addition, they obtained information on the
rate of both violent crimes (aggravated assault, homicide, etc.) and property crimes (burglary,
car theft, etc.) as well as another crime that has been often viewed as primarily aggressive in
nature: Rape. They then performed analysis to determine whether temperature was related to
these crimes.

Results indicated that the hotter years did indeed produce higher rates of violent crimes, but
that they did not produce increase in property crimes or rape. This was true, even when the
effect of many other variables that might also influence aggressive crimes (e.g. poverty, age
distribution of the population, etc.) was eliminated. These findings and those of related
studies (e.g. Anderson, Anderson and Deuser, 1996), suggest that heat is indeed linked to
aggression.

​ ​ ​ ​

Recent research by Rotton and Cohn, (2000), has revealed that the relationship between heat
and Aggression is curvilinear. These researchers found that in two large U.S. cities, the
incidence of violent assaults rose with increasing temperatures, but only up to a point; beyond
this level, as temperature continued to rise, the incidence of assaults actually dropped.

2.​ Alcohol: Social Psychologists have found a close relationship between alcohol and
aggressive behaviour. Bars, nightclubs, and other places in which people consume
alcohol are often the scene of aggressive behaviour. These results and those of several
related studies (e.g., Jeavons and Taylor, 1985) suggest that alcohol does not
automatically increase aggression by individuals who consume it. Such persons do
sometimes become more aggressive, but only in the context of social or situational
cues suggesting that such behaviour is appropriate (e.g., strong provocation from
others, social pressure to behave aggressively, etc.).

Recent research has also established a strong correlation between consumption of alcohol and
aggressive behavior. In several experiments, participants who consumed substantial doses of
alcohol (enough to make them legally drunk), have been found to behave more aggressively
and to respond to provocations more strongly, than those who did not consume alcohol
(Bushman and Cooper, 19900, Gustafson, 1990). Alcohol triggers aggression because
consumption of alcohol impairs our cognitive functions of higher order such as rational and
logical thinking. It makes us more impulsive resulting in higher levels of aggression.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Prevention and Control of aggression:

Since aggression originates from a complex interplay of external events, cognitions and
personal characteristics, it can be prevented or reduced. Some important techniques for
preventing and controlling aggression are as follows:
 1.​ Punishment : Punishment can be defined as delivery of aversive consequences. It is a
major technique for reducing aggression.

People who are given punishment:

●​ Are made to pay fines​

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●​ Put in prison​
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●​ Placed under solitary confinement​
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●​ Receive physical punishment for their aggressive acts, etc. ​
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It is a common belief among the members of the society that those individuals who have
indulged in acts of aggression need to be punished. The amount of punishment people receive
should be matched to the magnitude of the harm they have caused. For example, breaking
someone’s arm should deserve less punishment than permanently harming them or killing
them.

In addition, the magnitude of punishment should take into account the extenuating
(mitigating or justifying) circumstances. For example, was there some good reason for
indulging in aggressive actions such as self-defense or was it an act of hostile aggression. The
main aim of punishing the individual who has indulged in acts of aggression is to deter
him/her from engaging in such acts in the future. Secondly, aggressive acts which are hard to
detect, For example, that involve hidden or covert forms of harming others, should be
strongly punished because only strong punishment will deter people from engaging in actions
they believe they can get away with. ​

Common sense suggests that either punishing the aggressors for their violent behaviour or
merely threatening to do so may be a highly effective means of preventing these persons from
engaging in such activities. On the basis of such a general belief, most societies have
established severe punishments for murder, rape, assault and similar aggressive crimes. Even
psychologists have generally accepted the suggestion that actual or threatened punishment is
an effective deterrent to human violence. Dollard and Miller have remarked that "the strength
of inhibition of any act of aggression varies positively with the amount of punishment
anticipated to be a consequence of that act." Similarly, Richard Walters suggested that “it is
only continual expectation of retaliation of the recipient or other members of society that
prevents many individuals from more freely expressing aggression.” These remarks indicate
that if the aggressor knows that he will be punished for his aggressive behaviour, he is likely
to control his aggression, at least to some extent.

Parents as well as social institutions resort to punishment to control children's aggressive

behaviour and aggressive activities of the criminals. Punishment is assigned in proportion to
the extent of seriousness of the aggressive behaviour. It is true that punishment is sometimes
quite effective. Results of several studies conducted with children suggest that the frequency
or intensity of such behaviour can often be considerably reduced by even mild forms of
punishment like social disapproval.

Conditions necessary for punishment to be effective: In order for punishment to be effective

several conditions as follows must be met.

●​ Punishment must follow objectionable behaviour immediately or at least quickly. In

other words punishment must be delivered promptly.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ It must be of sufficient magnitude to be aversive to the recipient.​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
●​ There must be clear contingency between individual behaviour and punishment.
●​ Punishment must also be certain, i.e., the probability that it will follow aggression
must be very high.
●​ Punishment must be strong, i.e., strong enough to be highly unpleasant to potential
recipients.
●​ Punishment must also be effective.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
 2.​ Self-regulation : Self-regulation refers to internal mechanisms for controlling
aggression. It involves displaying self-control and restraints. It refers to our capacity
to regulate many aspects of our behaviour including display of overt aggression. Self-
regulation involves the use of cognitive effort to control aggression. Changing one’s
cognitions and attributions about a given event can lead to reductions in aggression.

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3.​ Forgiveness : Forgiveness can be defined as giving up the desire to punish someone
who has hurt us and seeking, instead, to act in a kind and helpful way towards them.
Forgiveness helps to reduce subsequent aggression and retaliation.

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4.​ Non-violence : It is an important principle of peace that has been a part of Indian
philosophy and has been advocated by Lord Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi and others.
Non-violence helps to reduce aggressive acts. In public life, especially protests
against the authorities, non-violence plays an important role.

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5.​ Catharsis: It refers to a view that if individuals give in to their anger and hostility in
relatively non-harmful ways, their tendencies to engage in more dangerous types of
aggression will be reduced.

In other words catharsis hypothesis, as presented by Dollard et al (1939), states that providing
angry individuals with the opportunity to “blow off steam” through vigorous but non-harmful
actions will:

●​ Reduce their level of arousal, and​

●​ Lower their tendencies to engage in overt acts of aggression.

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6.​ Exposure to Non-aggressive Models: Aggression results due to exposure to

aggressive models. Similarly, exposing individuals to non-aggressive models can lead
to decrease in aggression. Research studies by Baron and associates (1972) have
 shown that individuals exposed to the actions of non- aggressive models later
demonstrated lower levels of aggression than persons not exposed to such models.
Research has shown that it is very useful to plant non- aggressive models in tense and
threatening situations. Their presence will help to reduce aggression and violence.

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7.​ Training in Social Skills: One of the reasons why individuals indulge in aggression is
that they lack some form of social skill. There is a communication breakdown.
Research has shown that individuals who lack the social skill of communication,
self-expression are insensitive to the feelings and emotions of others and are likely to
become more aggressive. Helping such individuals to learn appropriate
communication skills, to learn expressive modes of frustration and to become
sensitive to emotional feelings of others will considerably help to reduce aggression.

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8.​ Legislation: Making stricter rules and regulations can help curtail aggression. Two
experts on criminal homicide have estimated that probably less than 5 per cent of all
known killings are premeditated, planned, or intentional (Wolfgang and Ferracuti,
1967, p. 189). The other 95 per cent occur in the heat of passion or as the result of one
person's intention to harm, but not to kill another. The availability of a gun makes it
easier for an individual to use the weapon impulsively.

These findings suggest the need for stricter gun legislation - especially the regulation of
handguns. In further support of this proposal, it has been found that some countries with very
strict gun control laws have much lower homicide rates than the United States. In Japan, for
instance, it is illegal for any resident - except members of the armed forces, the police,
ballistics researchers, and sporting marksmen - to own a handgun. Laws concerning the use
of guns are very carefully regulated.

Although there are many differences between Japanese and American society, which might
account for the different homicide rates, police officials in Japan feel that their gun laws -
coupled with their very strict drug laws have significantly reduced the incidence of homicide.
 9.​ Prison Reform: Seventy per cent of prison inmates released return to patterns of
crime, and their crimes are more violent after imprisonment than they were before
(Zimbardo, 1971). This fact makes it very clear that the present prison system is
failing to rehabilitate prisoners. Instead, the prisons are training grounds for
aggression. How could the prisons be improved? The social psychologist who
performed the prison experiment and who has had extensive contact with several
ex-convicts has made a number of suggestions, which if implemented can help to
reduce aggression. In India urgent prison reforms are needed so that prisoners are
rehabilitated and prisons do not become a place for “networking” crimes.

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