KUD BCA – Data Communication

C4BCA1T3 | Unit II – Full Exam Notes

Digital Transmission & Physical Layer

Summative: 80 Marks | Duration: 3 Hours | Prepared for KUD Exam 2024

SECTION A – 2 Mark Answers (Definitions)
📝 Write 3–5 lines for each. These are direct definition questions.

Q1. Define Digital Representation of Information

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Digital representation means converting any form of information (text, audio, image, video) into binary
form (0s and 1s) so that computers and communication systems can process and transmit it.
For example: Text is represented using ASCII/Unicode codes, images using pixel values (RGB), audio
using samples, and video using a sequence of image frames.

Q2. What is an Analog Signal?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
An analog signal is a continuous wave signal that varies smoothly over time. It can take any value
within a range. It is represented by a sine wave and is characterized by:
• Amplitude – height of the wave (signal strength)
• Frequency – number of cycles per second (measured in Hz)
• Phase – position of the wave relative to time
Example: Sound waves, radio waves, old telephone signals.

Q3. What is a Digital Signal?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
A digital signal is a discrete signal that takes only two values: 0 (low voltage) and 1 (high voltage). It is
represented as square waves and is used in computers and modern communication systems.
Advantages: Less noise interference, easy to compress and encrypt, more reliable over long
distances.

Q4. What is Line Coding?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Line coding is the process of converting digital data (binary bits) into digital signals for transmission
over a communication channel. It defines how 0s and 1s are represented as voltage levels.
Common line coding schemes: NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Manchester, Differential Manchester, AMI.

Q5. What is Modulation?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Modulation is the process of combining a low-frequency message signal (data) with a high-frequency
carrier signal for long-distance transmission. The three types are:
• AM (Amplitude Modulation) – varies amplitude
• FM (Frequency Modulation) – varies frequency
• PM (Phase Modulation) – varies phase

Q6. What is Multiplexing?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Multiplexing is the technique of combining multiple signals from different sources and transmitting
them over a single shared communication channel simultaneously. The device used is called a
Multiplexer (MUX) at the sender side and Demultiplexer (DEMUX) at the receiver side.
Q7. What is SONET?
⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is a standard for transmitting digital data over optical fiber
cables. It defines data rates in terms of OC (Optical Carrier) levels. The basic rate is OC-1 = 51.84
Mbps. SONET provides synchronous, high-speed, reliable data transmission and is widely used by
telephone companies.

Q8. What is Guided Media?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Guided media (also called wired or bounded media) are physical cables through which signals are
transmitted in a guided path. The signal is confined within the physical medium.
Types: Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Optical Fiber Cable.

Q9. What is Unguided Media?

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Unguided media (also called wireless or unbounded media) transmit electromagnetic signals through
air without any physical conductor. The signal travels freely through the atmosphere.
Types: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves.

Q10. Define Bit Rate and Baud Rate

⭐ Expected: 2 Marks Marks Question
Bit Rate: The number of bits transmitted per second (bps). It measures the speed of data
transmission.
Baud Rate: The number of signal units (symbols) transmitted per second. If each symbol carries more
than one bit, Bit Rate > Baud Rate.
Formula: Bit Rate = Baud Rate × Number of bits per symbol
SECTION B – 5 Mark Answers
📝 Write 1.5 to 2 pages per answer. Include definitions, explanation, types/points, and a small table or
diagram description.

Q1. Differentiate Between Analog and Digital Signals

⭐ Expected: 5 Marks Marks Question
Signals are the means of transmitting data from one point to another. There are two types of signals:

Feature Analog Signal Digital Signal

Nature Continuous wave signal Discrete signal (0s and 1s)
Wave Shape Sine wave Square wave
Values Infinite values in a range Only two values: 0 and 1
Noise Effect Highly affected by noise Less affected by noise
Bandwidth Low bandwidth required High bandwidth required
Transmission Long distance with loss More reliable transmission
Example Sound, radio waves Computer data, digital TV
Cost Less expensive More expensive but efficient

Analog signals are used in traditional radio and telephone systems. Digital signals are preferred in
modern communication because they are more accurate, secure, and easy to process.

Q2. Explain Different Line Coding Schemes

⭐ Expected: 5 Marks Marks Question
Line coding converts digital data (binary 0s and 1s) into digital signals for transmission. The main
schemes are:

1. NRZ-L (Non-Return to Zero Level):

• Positive voltage = 1, Negative voltage = 0
• Simple but has synchronization problems with long streams of same bits

2. NRZ-I (Non-Return to Zero Invert):

• Signal inverts at the beginning of bit 1, no change for bit 0
• Better than NRZ-L for synchronization

3. Manchester Encoding:
• Each bit has a transition in the middle: low-to-high = 1, high-to-low = 0
• Used in Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• Provides self-synchronization

4. Differential Manchester:
• Transition at middle is always present for synchronization
• Bit value depends on transition at beginning: no transition = 1, transition = 0
• Used in Token Ring networks
5. AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion):
• 0 = zero voltage, 1 = alternating +V and -V
• Used in telephone networks, no DC component

Scheme Bit 0 Bit 1 Used In

NRZ-L Negative voltage Positive voltage Basic systems
NRZ-I No change Invert signal USB
Manchester High-to-low Low-to-high Ethernet (802.3)
Diff. Manchester Transition at start No transition at Token Ring
start
AMI Zero voltage +V or -V alternate Telephone networks

Q3. Explain Types of Multiplexing

⭐ Expected: 5 Marks Marks Question
Multiplexing is the technique of sending multiple signals over a single communication channel
simultaneously. It is done by a Multiplexer (MUX) at sender and Demultiplexer (DEMUX) at receiver.

1. FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing:

• Used for analog signals
• Each signal is assigned a different frequency band
• All signals transmitted simultaneously on the same medium
• Example: FM Radio, Cable TV, telephone lines

2. TDM – Time Division Multiplexing:

• Used for digital signals
• Each signal is given a fixed time slot in a rotating frame
• Signals are transmitted one at a time in their time slots
• Two types: Synchronous TDM and Statistical TDM
• Example: Telephone networks, T1 lines

3. WDM – Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

• Used for optical fiber communication
• Different wavelengths (colors) of light carry different signals
• DWDM (Dense WDM) can carry 160+ channels on one fiber
• Example: Internet backbone, long-distance fiber networks

Type Signal Type Division Method Example

FDM Analog Frequency bands FM Radio, Cable TV
TDM Digital Time slots Telephone, T1 lines
WDM Optical Light wavelengths Fiber optic networks

Q4. Explain Guided Transmission Media

⭐ Expected: 5 Marks Marks Question
Guided media are physical cables that guide the signal along a specific path from sender to receiver.
There are three main types:
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
• Two copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic interference
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) – cheap, used in LANs (Cat5, Cat6)
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) – has extra shielding, used in noisy environments
• Speed: Up to 1 Gbps | Distance: Up to 100 meters
• Example: Telephone lines, Ethernet cables

2. Coaxial Cable:
• Central copper conductor surrounded by insulation, metallic shield and outer jacket
• Better shielding than twisted pair, less interference
• Two types: Baseband (single channel) and Broadband (multiple channels)
• Speed: Up to 10 Gbps | Distance: Up to 500 meters
• Example: Cable TV, older Ethernet (10Base2, 10Base5)

3. Optical Fiber Cable:

• Transmits data as pulses of light through glass or plastic fibers
• Uses total internal reflection principle
• Single-mode fiber: one light path, long distance, expensive
• Multi-mode fiber: multiple light paths, shorter distance, cheaper
• Speed: Up to 100 Tbps | Very long distances
• Example: Internet backbone, medical equipment, military

Media Speed Distance Cost Interference

Twisted Pair Up to 1 Gbps 100 m Low High
Coaxial Cable Up to 10 Gbps 500 m Medium Medium
Optical Fiber Up to 100 Tbps Very long High None

Q5. Explain Generations of Cellular Networks (1G to 5G)

⭐ Expected: 5 Marks Marks Question
Cellular networks have evolved through several generations, each offering improved speed, capacity,
and services:

Generatio Year Technology Speed Key Feature

n
1G 1980s AMPS (Analog) 2.4 Kbps First mobile voice calls
(analog only)
2G 1990s GSM / CDMA 64 Kbps Digital voice, SMS, basic
data
2.5G Late GPRS / EDGE 384 Kbps Packet-based data, internet
1990s access
3G 2000s WCDMA / UMTS 2 Mbps Mobile internet, video calling
4G 2010s LTE / WiMAX 100 Mbps HD video streaming, VoIP,
fast internet
5G 2020s NR (New Radio) 10+ Gbps IoT, AR/VR, ultra-low latency
Each generation brought improvements in speed, security, and services. 5G is the current standard
supporting smart cities, autonomous vehicles, and the Internet of Things (IoT).
SECTION C – 10 Mark Answers (Long Essays)
📝 Write 3–4 pages per answer. Include Introduction, detailed explanation of all parts, diagrams (describe
them), comparison tables, and a conclusion.

Q1. Explain Digital Transmission in Detail

⭐ Expected: 10 Marks Marks Question
Introduction:
Digital transmission is the process of sending data in digital form (binary 0s and 1s) from one point to
another. It is preferred over analog transmission because it is more accurate, less affected by noise,
and easier to process and encrypt.

A. Digital Representation of Information

Before transmission, all types of information must be converted to digital form:
• Text: Represented using ASCII (7-bit, 128 characters) or Unicode (16-bit, 65,536
characters)
• Numbers: Converted to binary using binary number system
• Images: Represented as pixels with RGB color values (each color 8 bits = 24 bits per pixel)
• Audio: Sampled at regular intervals and converted to digital values (PCM technique)
• Video: A sequence of image frames (typically 30 frames per second)

B. Analog vs Digital Signals

Feature Analog Digital
Nature Continuous Discrete (0 and 1)
Noise Highly affected Less affected
Wave Sine wave Square wave
Security Less secure More secure (encryption)
Error Difficult to detect Easy to detect and correct

C. Line Coding
Line coding converts binary data into digital signals. Key schemes:
• NRZ-L: Positive = 1, Negative = 0
• NRZ-I: Invert at bit 1, no change at bit 0
• Manchester: Transition in middle of each bit – used in Ethernet
• Differential Manchester: Always has mid-bit transition – used in Token Ring
• AMI: 0 = zero voltage, 1 = alternating +V and –V

D. Modulation Techniques
Modulation is needed to convert digital data for transmission over analog channels (like telephone
lines). Types:
• ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying): Bit 1 = high amplitude, Bit 0 = low amplitude. Simple but
affected by noise.
• FSK (Frequency Shift Keying): Bit 1 = high frequency, Bit 0 = low frequency. Better noise
resistance.
• PSK (Phase Shift Keying): Bit 1 = phase shift of 180°. More efficient, used in modems.
 • QAM (Quadrature AM): Combines ASK and PSK. Used in modern modems and cable TV.
Very efficient.

E. Transmission Modes
• Parallel Transmission: Multiple bits sent simultaneously over multiple wires. Fast but
costly. Used inside computers.
• Serial Transmission: Bits sent one by one over a single wire. Slower but cheaper. Used for
long-distance communication.
Serial transmission has three types:
• Asynchronous – each byte preceded by start bit and followed by stop bit
• Synchronous – blocks of bits sent with timing controlled by clock signal
• Isochronous – fixed timing for real-time data like audio/video

Conclusion
Digital transmission is the backbone of modern communication. It ensures reliable, fast, and secure
data transfer by converting all types of information into binary form and using various coding and
modulation techniques to transmit it over different media.

Q2. Explain Multiplexing in Detail (FDM, TDM, WDM)

⭐ Expected: 10 Marks Marks Question
Introduction:
Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple signals to share a single transmission channel. This
increases the efficiency of the communication medium and reduces cost. The device at the sender
end is called Multiplexer (MUX) and at the receiver end is called Demultiplexer (DEMUX).

Need for Multiplexing:

• Reduces number of physical links required
• Increases channel utilization and efficiency
• Reduces cost of transmission
• Allows simultaneous communication by multiple users

1. FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM is used for analog signals. The total bandwidth of the channel is divided into multiple smaller
frequency bands. Each signal is assigned one band and all signals are transmitted simultaneously.

Working:
• Each source signal is modulated with a different carrier frequency
• Guard bands are placed between channels to avoid interference
• At receiver, bandpass filters separate each signal

Advantages: Simple, no dynamic coordination needed, works well for analog signals
Disadvantages: Wasteful if traffic is not constant, guard bands reduce efficiency
Examples: FM Radio (88–108 MHz), cable TV, ADSL telephone lines
2. TDM – Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is used for digital signals. The channel time is divided into fixed time slots. Each user gets a time
slot in rotation to transmit data.

Two types:
• Synchronous TDM: Each source gets a fixed time slot whether it has data or not. Simple
but wasteful if a source is idle.
• Statistical (Asynchronous) TDM: Time slots are assigned only to sources that have data to
send. More efficient. Also called STDM.

Advantages: Efficient for digital data, no interference between channels

Disadvantages: Synchronization required, wasted slots in synchronous TDM
Examples: T1 carrier lines (24 channels × 64 Kbps = 1.544 Mbps), GSM phones

3. WDM – Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM is used for optical fiber. Different wavelengths (colors) of light are used to carry different signals
through the same fiber simultaneously.

• CWDM (Coarse WDM): Up to 18 channels, wider spacing between wavelengths, lower cost
• DWDM (Dense WDM): 160+ channels, very narrow spacing, used for long-distance
backbone networks

Advantages: Extremely high bandwidth, no interference, bidirectional transmission possible

Examples: Internet backbone, long-distance undersea fiber cables, telecom networks

Feature FDM TDM WDM

Signal Type Analog Digital Optical/Light
Division Frequency bands Time slots Light wavelengths
Medium Copper wire Any digital Optical fiber
Interference Guard bands needed Synchronization None
needed
Application Radio, Cable TV Telephone, T1 Fiber optic backbone
Efficiency Moderate High Very High

Conclusion:
Multiplexing is essential in modern networks to efficiently utilize available bandwidth. FDM is ideal for
analog systems, TDM for digital systems, and WDM for optical networks. Together these techniques
form the foundation of efficient data communication.

Q3. Explain Transmission Media in Detail (Guided and Unguided)

⭐ Expected: 10 Marks Marks Question
Introduction:
Transmission media is the physical path through which data travels from sender to receiver. It is
classified into two types: Guided (Wired) and Unguided (Wireless) media.
A. Guided Media (Wired)
In guided media, signals are directed along a physical path (cable).

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

• Consists of pairs of copper wires twisted together
• Twisting reduces electromagnetic interference (crosstalk)
• UTP – No extra shielding, inexpensive, used in LANs (Cat3, Cat5, Cat6)
• STP – Has metal foil/braid shielding, better performance in noisy environments
• Maximum speed: 1 Gbps (Cat6) | Maximum distance: 100 meters
• Connector: RJ-45 | Example: Ethernet LAN cables, telephone lines

2. Coaxial Cable:
• Central copper conductor → Insulating layer → Metallic shield → Outer plastic jacket
• Better bandwidth and shielding compared to twisted pair
• Baseband coax: single channel digital signal (used in Ethernet 10Base2)
• Broadband coax: multiple channels analog signal (used in Cable TV)
• Maximum speed: 10 Gbps | Distance: Up to 500 meters
• Example: Cable TV, older Ethernet networks

3. Optical Fiber Cable:

• Transmits data as light pulses using the principle of Total Internal Reflection
• Core: glass/plastic fiber | Cladding: reflects light back | Jacket: outer protection
• Single-mode fiber: one ray of light, thin core (8–10 microns), long distance, expensive
• Multi-mode fiber: multiple rays, wider core (50–100 microns), shorter distance, cheaper
• Advantages: Very high speed, no electromagnetic interference, secure, lightweight
• Speed: Up to 100 Tbps | Distance: Tens of kilometers
• Example: Internet backbone, medical imaging, undersea cables

B. Unguided Media (Wireless)

In unguided media, signals travel through the atmosphere without physical cables.

1. Radio Waves:
• Frequency range: 3 KHz to 1 GHz
• Omnidirectional – can travel in all directions, pass through walls
• Used for AM/FM radio, cordless phones, Wi-Fi (2.4 GHz)
• Disadvantage: Susceptible to interference

2. Microwaves:
• Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
• Unidirectional – requires line-of-sight between sender and receiver
• Two types: Terrestrial microwave (relay towers) and Satellite microwave
• Used for long-distance telephone calls, satellite TV, GPS

3. Infrared:
• Frequency range: 300 GHz to 400 THz
• Short-range communication, cannot penetrate walls
• Used in TV remotes, IrDA (Infrared Data Association) for device-to-device transfer
 • Advantage: No interference with radio signals

Media Type Speed Distance Cost Example

Twisted Pair Guided 1 Gbps 100 m Low Ethernet LAN
Coaxial Guided 10 Gbps 500 m Medium Cable TV
Optical Fiber Guided 100 Tbps Very long High Internet backbone
Radio Waves Unguided Varies Long Low Wi-Fi, FM Radio
Microwaves Unguided High Long Medium Satellite TV, GPS
(LOS)
Infrared Unguided Low Short Low TV Remote

Conclusion:
Selection of transmission media depends on factors like cost, speed required, distance, security, and
environment. Optical fiber is best for high-speed long-distance communication while wireless media is
ideal for mobile and flexible environments.
QUICK REVISION – Unit II at a Glance

Topic Key Points to Remember

Digital Representation Text=ASCII/Unicode, Image=Pixels/RGB, Audio=PCM Sampling,
Video=Frames
Analog Signal Continuous, Sine wave, Amplitude/Frequency/Phase, Example:
Radio
Digital Signal Discrete, Square wave, 0 and 1 only, Less noise
Line Coding NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Manchester(Ethernet), Diff. Manchester(Token Ring),
AMI
Modulation ASK(Amplitude), FSK(Frequency), PSK(Phase), QAM(AM+PM
combined)
FDM Analog, Frequency bands, Guard bands, Radio/Cable TV
TDM Digital, Time slots, Sync TDM vs Statistical TDM, Telephone/T1
WDM Optical fiber, Light wavelengths, CWDM vs DWDM, Internet
backbone
SONET Optical network standard, OC levels, OC-1=51.84 Mbps
Twisted Pair UTP/STP, RJ-45, 1 Gbps, 100m, Ethernet LAN
Coaxial Cable Central copper, 10 Gbps, 500m, Cable TV
Optical Fiber Light pulses, TIR, Single/Multi mode, 100 Tbps, Internet backbone
Unguided Media Radio(Wi-Fi), Microwave(Satellite), Infrared(Remote)
Cellular: 1G Analog, AMPS, Voice only, 2.4 Kbps
Cellular: 2G Digital, GSM/CDMA, SMS+Voice, 64 Kbps
Cellular: 3G WCDMA, Mobile internet, Video call, 2 Mbps
Cellular: 4G LTE, HD Video, VoIP, 100 Mbps
Cellular: 5G NR, IoT/AR/VR, 10+ Gbps, Ultra-low latency

Best of Luck for Your KUD Examination! 🎯