Distance relay

and

Feeder protection with

distance relay

Reference: Y.G. Paithankar and S R Bhide “Fundamental of Power System Protection”, 2nd
edition, PHI, 2014.
Distance Protection

RLoad

XLoad
Distance Protection

Zset = 10

Fault Desired
VR IR ZR Comparison
location operation
F3 VR3 (100) IR3 (5) ZL3 (20) ZL3 > Zset Restrain
Verge of
F2 VR2 (100) IR2 (10) ZL2 (10) ZL2 = Zset
operation
F1 VR1 (100) IR1 (20) ZL1 (5) ZL1 < Zset Trip
 F3
F2
Zset
F1
Simple impedance relay characteristics on R-X plane
Realization of Simple impedance Relay using Balanced Beam Structure

Relay operates, when

𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐 < 𝑲𝟏 𝑰𝑹 𝟐

𝑽𝑹 𝟐 𝑲𝟏
<
𝑰𝑹 𝟐 𝑲𝟐

𝟐
𝑽𝑹 𝑲𝟏
Operating Torque - 𝑰𝑹 <
𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟐
𝟐
Restraining Torque - 𝑽𝑹 and Spring

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = + 𝑲𝟏 𝑰𝑹 𝟐 − 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐 − 𝑲𝟒 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 < 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒕

k4 is the torque due to spring

Performance of simple impedance relay characteristic during
normal load flow

The impedance seen by the relay under such a condition is quite large and falls outside
the trip area of the relay operating characteristics. Thus, the simple impedance relay is
stable during normal operating conditions.
Directional property of the simple impedance relay characteristic

• The reach of the simple

impedance relay is independent
of the phase angle between
voltage and current at the relay
location.
• Thus, the relay does not possess
directional property.
Effect of Fault arc resistance

Arc resistance (Rarc)

Ground
Effect of arc resistance on reach of simple impedance relay
characteristic

• Simple impedance relay under-

reaches because of an arcing fault.
• The percentage of under-reach is
defined as the ratio of the distance
by which the relay under reaches,
to the reach setting of the relay.
Performance of simple impedance relay characteristic
during power swing
POWER SWING:
When a power system is operating in steady state, all the rotor or machine angles are
constant. Whenever there are sudden and large changes of power in the system, (say due to
outage of a major tie-line), the rotor angles undergo oscillations till the system reaches a
new stable state. This phenomenon is known as power swing.
Performance of simple impedance relay characteristic during power
swing

• During the power swing, the impedance

measured by relay enters the trip region of
the relay operating characteristic and passes
through the electrical centre of transmission
line. This causes the relay to trip.
• Since the simple impedance relay occupies
substantial area in all the four quadrants of
the R-X plane, it is very much vulnerable to
maloperation on power swing.
 Reactance distance relay characteristic
• Current provides operating torque
• Directional unit provides restraining torque

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = + 𝑲𝟏 𝑰𝑹 𝟐 − 𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 − 𝑲𝟒

If 𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 < 𝑲𝟐 𝑰𝑹 𝟐 , then trip; else restrain

When MTA=90° and k1/k3 =Xn

𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟏 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎° < 𝑿𝒏

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 <
𝑰𝑹 𝟐 𝑲𝟑

𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 < 𝑿𝒏

𝑽𝑹 𝑲𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 <
𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟑
If 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 < 𝑿𝒏 then trip; else restrain
𝑲𝟏
𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 <
𝑲𝟑
Reactance distance relay If 𝑿𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 < 𝑿𝒏 then trip; else restrain
characteristic

The relay is sensitive only to the reactive part of the impedance seen, and trips if
the reactive part is less than a particular set value Xn. Hence, such a relay is
called a reactance relay.
Performance of Reactance distance relay characteristic during
normal load flow

• The reactance seen by relay during normal load flow conditions unfortunately falls in
the trip region of the reactance relay operating characteristic.
• Thus, a reactance relay will operate during normal load flow. This is clearly
unacceptable.
• Therefore, the reactance relay cannot be used by itself for protection of the transmission
line but needs to be supervised from another relay to prevent its operation on load.
Directional property of the Reactance distance relay characteristic

• Since the trip characteristic of the

reactance relay occupies areas in both
these quadrants, it does not exhibit any
directional property.
Effect of arc resistance on reach of Reactance distance relay
characteristic

• The reach of the reactance relay remains unaffected in spite of the presence of arc
resistance.
• The reactance relay finds wide applications in fault locators where the exact location
of the fault can be found out in the presence of fault resistance.
Performance of Reactance distance relay characteristic during
power swing

• During power swing, the tip of the impedance-seen phasor approaches the
electrical centre of the system.
• Therefore, the reactance relay operates on power swing as well.
Mho distance relay characteristic
• Directional unit provides operating torque
• Voltage provides restraining torque

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = − 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 − 𝑲𝟒

If 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐 < 𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 then trip; else restrain.

𝑽𝑹 𝟐 𝑲𝟑
< 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉
𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟐

𝑽𝑹 𝑲𝟑
< 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉
𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟐

If 𝒁𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒏 < 𝒁𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 then trip; else restrain

Etymology of Mho distance relay characteristic

− 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐 + 𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 = 𝟎

𝑲𝟑 𝑽𝑹 𝑰𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 > 𝑲𝟐 𝑽𝑹 𝟐

𝑰𝑹 𝑲𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 > The relay is sensitive only to the
𝑽𝑹 𝑲𝟑
susceptance of the admittance seen,
𝑲𝟐
𝒀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝝉 > and trips. Hence, such a relay is
𝑲𝟑
called a mho relay.
When MTA=90°
𝑲𝟐
𝒀 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝟗𝟎° >
𝑲𝟑
𝑲𝟐
𝒀 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 >
𝑲𝟑

𝑩 > 𝑩𝒏
Mho distance relay characteristic Z Relay seen < Zn cos (Ɵ−𝝉)
Zline
X

Ɵ−𝝉 Zn

Ɵ 𝝉

Zn cos (Ɵ−𝝉) = Z Protected line

Z Relay seen < Z Protected line

Performance of Mho distance relay characteristic during normal
load flow

The impedance seen by the relay during normal load (double-end-fed system) is well
outside the trip region of the characteristic. Thus, the relay is stable during load
conditions.
 Directional property of the Mho distance relay characteristic

• A mho relay is a directional relay with voltage restraint.

• Thus, the mho relay very much possesses the directional property
Effect of arc resistance on reach of Mho distance relay
characteristic

• The percentage under-reach of the mho relay is slightly severe than that of the
simple impedance relay for same fault resistance.
Effect of fault arc resistance on three characteristics of distance relay

B
Under reach = BC/AB
C D
Under reach = BE/AB
E F

A
A

Simple impedance relay

Reactance relay
Mho relay
• The percentage under-reach of the mho relay is severe. slightly more than that of the
simple impedance relay for same fault resistance.
• The ability of the reactance relay to respond correctly in the presence of fault resistance is
a very useful trait.
Performance of Mho distance relay characteristic during power
swing

• The mho relay occupies a much smaller area on the R-X plane. It affected
less compared with other characteristics.
• However, when the swing is very large, the impedance seen enters the mho
circle and the relay trips
Comparison between Distance Relays Characteristics
 Conclusion on comparison

• It is not possible to use the reactance relay for transmission line protection on
a standalone basis. It has to be used in conjunction with a directional or a mho
element.
• The mho relay is much better on most of the counts.
• One remarkable property of reactance relay is its immunity to fault resistance.
However, it lacks stability on load and does not have directional property.
• Considering pros and cons, the mho relay is found to be a much better fit for
long lines which are likely to be subjected to frequent power swings.
• The reactance relay (in conjunction with mho) is preferred for short lines.
 Performance of Mho distance relay characteristic during power
swing

• There are two reasons why power swings should be detected.

• First, they can lead to the misoperation of directional comparison schemes, generation
protection, or some protection elements, such as Zone 1 distance, phase overcurrent, or
phase undervoltage. For these instances, a power swing blocking signal is needed to ensure
the security of the elements.
• Second, in the case of an unstable swing, a network separation is needed in order to avoid a
network collapse. In this instance, the out-of-step condition must be detected in order to
generate an out-of-step signal.
• To prevent unwanted relay operations during power swings, modern relays incorporate
the power swing blocking function.
• The primary purpose of the power swing blocking function is to distinguish between
supply faults and power swings, effectively blocking distance protection or other relay
elements during power swings.
• Special attention must be given to the effects of power fluctuations, particularly in cases
of the out-of-step conditions, i.e., unstable power swing.
• Uncontrolled disconnection of circuit breakers during the out-of-step states can result in
equipment damage, pose safety risks to operating personnel, and contribute to
cascading interruptions and disconnections of significant portions of the power system.
• Therefore, the main goal of the out-of-step tripping function is to differentiate unstable
from stable power swings and separate the system into areas at predetermined network
locations, considering the corresponding phase angle difference voltage between the
source and the system.
• This approach is essential for maintaining power system stability and ensuring
continuous power supply.
 Power swing blocking Where
A: Z moves into the OOS zone and slowly leaves;
B: Z moves into OOS & Trip zones and slowly leaves;
C: Z moves slowly = network becomes asynchronous;
D: Fault = Z moves rapidly into the exclusion zone.

• When apparent impedance remains between the inner and outer zones for a predetermined
time, the power swing blocking element activates, and the set distance protection zones are
blocked during that time. In the case of the out-of-step scheme, when a loss of
synchronism occurs, the measured impedance passes through both the inner and outer
zones.
• When the criteria for power swing detection are not met, and the out-of-step triping
scheme is selected, all relay zones are temporarily blocked to prevent premature tripping.
 (ii) Rate of Change of Impedance Methods

• The rate of change of impedance methods are based on the principle that the Z1

impedance travels in the complex plane with a relatively slow pace, whereas during a

fault, Z1 switches from the load point to the fault location almost instantaneously.

(iii) Blinder Schemes

• This scheme detects an unstable power swing

when the time interval required to cross the
distance between the right and left blinders exceeds
a minimum time setting.
• The scheme allows for the implementation of out-
of-step on the way out of the zone.
Fault characteristic on R-X plane

• It possess the ideal characteristics for line protection as it enclose the fault area
of the line.
• It is best suitable for long transmission line.
• It is less affected by power swing, arc resistance and overloads.
Quadrilateral distance relay characteristic

• This form of polygonal impedance characteristic is provided with forward

reach and resistive reach settings that are independently adjustable.
• Polygonal impedance characteristics are highly flexible in terms of fault
impedance coverage for both phase and earth faults.
Reach
• The distance up to which relay can respond for faults, is called as protected zone.

Reach of the relay is Zset = ZAB

Under Reach less 100% of Zset

Over reach more than 100% of Zset

If ZR < Zset
Then trip,
Else restrain
Under reach:
The tendency of the relay to restrain (not to operate) the relay operation for the fault within
the protected zone.

Over reach:
The tendency of the relay to operate for the fault beyond the protected zone.
Reasons for inaccuracy of distance relay reach

• Inaccuracy in CT and PT ratios.

• Ambiguity about line parameters (line parameters are seldom measured,

they are calculated from line data).

• Variation of line parameters with atmospheric conditions.

• DC offset in fault current.

• Transient response of capacitive voltage transformers (CVT).

Step distance protection

• If the reach of distance relay is adjusted to 100% then over-reach will cause loss of
selectivity with the distance protection of the next section.
• It is a usual practice to set the reach of distance protection to about 80 to 90% of the
line section.
Three-stepped Distance Protection:

Zone Reach setting Time setting

First step 80% to 90% of protected line (Instantaneous trip) = T
100% of protected line + (operating time of step I (T) +
Second step
50% next line selective time interval) = T1
100% of protected line +
(operating time of step II (T1) +
Third step 100% next line +
selective time interval) = T2
10 to 20% of extra
Loss of selectivity of second zone of RA
Z2 = ZAB + 0.5 ZBC

Z1 = 0.8 of ZAB

D1
D2

Z2 = ZBD + 0.5 ZDE

Z1 = 0.8 of ZBD

Zone Reach setting Time setting Purpose

Primary protection of remaining
Second 100% of protected line +
T + STI= T1 20 to 10% of LAB and back up
step 50% of shortest adjoining line
protection for bus B
Three-stepped Distance Protection: Z3
Z2
Z1

Zone Reach setting Time setting Purpose

First
80% to 90% of protected line T Primary protection of LAB
step
Primary protection of remaining
Second 100% of protected line +
T + STI= T1 20 to 10% of LAB and back up
step 50% of shortest adjoining line
protection for bus B
100% of protected line +
Third
100% of longest adjoining line+ T1 + STI= T2 Back-up protection for next line
step
10 to 20% of extra
Three-stepped Distance Protection:

• There is an additional distance measuring unit whose

reach is beyond the third zone reach.
• The operating time of this unit is instantaneous.
• This unit is known as a fault detector or starter unit.
Trip Contact Configuration for the Three-stepped Distance Protection

• Timer is activated by fault detector (FD)

• The timer provide the time delay T1 and T2
corresponding to Z2 and Z3, respectively.
Three-stepped Protection of Double-End-Fed Lines
Z3
Z2
Z1

Z1
Z2
Z3

• Only 60% of the line gets high speed distance protection.

Delayed protection in the protected line

• Only 60% of the line gets high speed distance protection.

• The remainder 40% of the line length falls in the step II which is a delayed one.
• This can be managed with help of the carrier-aided distance schemes
 Attributes of an ideal carrier channel
• Delay involved in the communication should be small compared to the time period of
the system frequency. At 50 Hz, the communication delay should be much less than 20
milliseconds.
• Since only a small amount of information is to be passed, the carrier channel need not
have very high bandwidth for protection purposes.
• Faults on the power system should not adversely affect the functioning of the carrier
channel.
• Carrier channel should be under full control of the utility company.
• The carrier equipment, such as carrier transmitter and receiver, should be protected
from the high potential of the EHV line.
• The carrier channel should be economical.

Various Options for a Carrier:

(i) Telephone line (ii) Microwave communication channel (iii) Satellite communication
(iv) Power line carrier communication
Power line carrier communication (PLCC)

• The information is modulated into carrier signal and transmitted through the
power line.
• Frequency band allocated to this service is 50–200 kHz and required small
bandwidth.
• The protection relaying scheme does not require a large bandwidth.
• There are two types of coupling in the PLCC, namely line to ground coupling
and line to line coupling.
Line to ground coupling

• A series resonant L-C circuit is ideally zero, it provides very good coupling at the carrier
frequency. The impedance of a parallel resonant circuit is ideally infinite at the resonant
frequency, it develops maximum voltage at carrier frequency
Line to line coupling

The carrier signals propagate through air between the line conductors, therefore, the
attenuation is much less. This mode of transmission, known as the aerial mode, results in a
much better performance during single line-to-ground faults.
Carrier-aided Distance Schemes
Transfer Trip or Inter-trip

If the fault detector FD contact is bypassed by connecting point P with P1, then the
scheme is known as transfer trip or inter-trip
 Permissive Inter-trip
if point P, is connected to point P2 then the scheme is known as permissive
inter-trip.

Acceleration of Zone II
If the zone II timer contact T2 is bypassed with CRRA, in which case the
scheme is known as acceleration of zone II.

Pre-acceleration of Zone II
Initially, the zone II timing is accelerated from T1 to a much smaller value by
shorting out the T1 contact of the timer.
zone II should be pre-accelerated to an operating time of:
Tpre-accelerated ≥ Tdir + Tprop + TCRR,A

This is known as a blocking carrier

Distance Protection of a Three-phase Line
Phase fault characteristics:
• The phase fault current magnitude is dependent only on positive sequence
and negative sequence impedance.
Earth fault characteristics:
• The earth fault current magnitude is significantly influenced by Rf and
grounding impedance Zn as 3*(Rf+Zn).
• Fault impedance path for earth fault is higher than phase fault.

Presence of sequence components in various faults

Fault Positive seq. ct. Negative Seq. ct. Zero seq. ct.
L-G Yes Yes Yes
L-L Yes Yes No
L-L-G Yes Yes Yes
L-L-L Yes No No
Phase Faults

Writing KVL around the loop

Similarly Ia1- Ia2 can be written as
Ground Faults
Complete distance protection of a three-phase line.
Numerical Example: 1

Line Impedance/km
Z1 = (0.089 + j 0.476) = 0.484 ∟79.41º ≈ 0.484 ∟80º Ώ

1000/1
Ratio of secondary to primary impedance = = 0.478
230000/110

Line Impedance/km at secondary ZL1 = 0.484 ∟80º Ώ * 0.478 = 0.231 ∟80º Ώ

ZL = 0.2314 ∟80º Ώ * 100 = 23.14 ∟80º Ώ

 Residual compensation factor k

ZL1 = 0.089 + j 0.476 = 0.484 ∟ 79.41º

ZL0 = 0.426 + j 1.576 = 1.632 ∟74.87º K = 0.792 ∟-6.5º

Zone 1 Reach
Zone 1 reach is 80% of the line impedance

Z1 = 0.8 x 23.14 ∟ 80º = 18.51 ∟80º Ώ

Zone 2 Reach
Zone 2 reach is 100 % of the protected line + 50% of the next line
Z2 = 23.14 ∟ 80º + (0.5 x 60 x (0.2314 ∟ 80º )) = 30.08 ∟80º Ώ

Zone 3 Reach
Zone 3 reach is 100 % of the protected line + 120% of the next line

Z3 = 23.14 ∟ 80º + (1.2 x 60x (0.2314 ∟ 80º )) = 39.80 ∟80º Ώ

Numerical Example: 2

Zero seq. compensation factor k and Zone 1 setting remain same

RB - Zone 2 Reach
Zone 2 reach is 100 % of the protected line + 50% of the shortest line

Z2 = 23.14 ∟ 80º + (0.5 x 60 x (0.2314 ∟ 80º )) = 30.08 ∟80º Ώ

RB - Zone 3 Reach

Zone 3 reach is 100 % of the protected line + 120% of the longest line

Z3 = 23.14 ∟ 80º + (1.2 x 90x (0.2314 ∟ 80º )) = 48.13 ∟80º Ώ

• Residual compensation factor K is 0.792 ∟-6.5º

• Similarly, Relay RC setting can be calculated

Numerical Example: 3

R1 R2
Relay R1 setting
Residual compensation factor k

• Similarly, Relay R2 setting can be calculated