GenBio: ENERGY COUPLING  Entropy

- From an orderly manner to a highly

 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE disordered one.
- The main energy currency of cells.  ENDERGONIC Processes
 Adenosine is a nucleoside consisting of a - Not Spontaneous
nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar - Energy is absorbed
(ribose), and three phosphate groups - Anabolism
(Alpha, Beta, and Gamma).  EXERGONIC Processes
 ATP-ADP Cycle - Spontaneous
- One of the phosphate groups leaves the - Energy is released
ATP compound via hydrolysis. Making it - Catabolism
“ADP”  METABOLISM
 Hydrolysis is breaking a bond in a a. Anabolism
molecule and splitting it into smaller - A set of biochemical reactions that
molecules through a reaction with water. construct molecules from smaller
- During hydrolysis, energy is produced. components.
- ADP is then joined by another phosphate b. Catabolism
group making it ATP. - A set of biological reactions that break
- The attachment of the phosphate group down complex molecules into simpler
(Dehydration synthesis, Phosphorylation, ones.
etc.)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 Energy Coupling
- One reaction supplies the energy while
the other reaction consumes the energy
being supplied.
- A process wherein an energetically
favorable reaction is directly linked with
an energetically unfavorable reaction.
 Energy
- The capacity to cause change in both
reactions.
 Law of Energy Transformation
- Thermodynamics
 The study of energy transformations that ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
occur in a system.
- Enthalpy (H)
 The measurement of energy in a
thermodynamic system.
 Laws of Thermodynamics
1.) “Energy can be transferred or
transformed, but it cannot be created nor
destroyed.”
2.) Every energy transformation increases
the entropy of the universe.
GenBio: PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS  Helps organisms convert a wider range
of the energy from the sun into
 PIGMENTS
chemical energy.
- "Molecules that absorb specific
 CAROTENOIDS
wavelengths of light and reflect all
- A class of accessory pigments that
others."
occur in all photosynthetic
 Black pigments absorb all wavelengths
organisms.
of visible light that strike them. - These protect the plant from free radicals
 White pigments reflect most of the formed from ultraviolet or other
wavelengths striking them. radiation.
 Wavelengths absorbed by chlorophyll and - May appear RED, ORANGE, or
other photosynthetic pigments generate YELLOW due to the range of
electrons to power photosynthesis. wavelengths these can absorb (460 nm –
 CHLOROPHYLL 550 nm).
- The green pigment common to all - In autumn, when the days begin to
photosynthetic cells, absorbs all shorten, chlorophyll begins to break
wavelengths of visible light except down and the green color disappears
from tree leaves. Carotenoids, however,
green, which it reflects
remain in leaf tissue a little longer, which
- Chlorophyll A: is what gives autumn leaves their
 This is the most abundant pigment in brilliant orange, red and yellow colors.
plants. All photosynthetic organisms
have it.
 Absorbs violet-blue and reddish- GenBio: LIGHT-DEPENDENT
orange-red wavelengths. Chlorophyll REACTION
A absorbs light with wavelengths of
430nm (blue) and 662nm (red).  PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 It reflects green and yellow-green light - The process in which sunlight energy
strongly so it appears green to us. is used to make glucose. It takes place
 It can accept and donate electrons in two sequential stages: the light-
because of its structure. dependent reactions and the light-
 The central role of chlorophyll A is as independent reactions.
a PRIMARY ELECTRON DONOR in - Occurs in the Chloroplast
the electron transport chain.  LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS
- Chlorophyll B: -The capturing of light energy from
sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and
 It has a similar structure to its
converted into stored chemical energy in
counterpart, but is considered as an
the form of NADPH and ATP
“Accessory Pigment.”  LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS
 Absorbs energy that Chlorophyll A - The second step is the transfer of energy
does not. and reducing power from ATP and
 Chlorophyll B’s central role is to NADPH to CO2, to produce high-energy,
expand the absorption spectrum of reduced sugars.
organisms.
 - The ions flow through ATP synthase via
chemiosmosis to form molecules of ATP.
 TERMINOLOGIES:
- ATP and NADPH are the products of this
- THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
cycle, which is then used by the Calvin
 The layer of interconnected membranes of Cycle that produces carbohydrates for the
the Chloroplast. plants (glucose).
- PHOTOSYSTEM
 Consists of (1) a light-harvesting complex
and (2) a reaction center.
- REACTION CENTER
 Where the excitation of the electrons take
place.
- ELECTRONS OF PHOTOSYSTEM II
 The electrons from this photosystem come
from the splitting of a water molecule
(into 2 electrons, 1 hydrogen, and 2
oxygen), which releases oxygen as a waste
product.
- ELECTRONS OF PHOTOSYSTEM I
 The electron comes from the chloroplast
electron transport chain
- ATP SYNTHASE
 When a high concentration of hydrogen
ions builds up, the ATP Synthase allows
them to flow outside of the thylakoid
membrane.
PS II:
 HOW DOES IT WORK?
- In a photosystem, pigments in the light-
harvesting complex pass light energy to
two special chlorophyll molecules in the
reaction center.
- The light excites the electron molecules,
passing them onto the primary electron
acceptor of the electron transport chain.
- Photosystem I absorbs a second photon,
which results in the formation of an
NADPH molecule, another energy and
reducing power carrier for the light-
PS I:
independent reactions.
- The energy travels to the reaction center
that contains chlorophyll A to the
electron transport chain, which pumps
hydrogen ions into the thylakoid interior,
building high concentrations of hydrogen
ions.
GenBio: LIGHT-INDEPENDENT  PHASES OF CALVIN CYCLE
REACTION 1.) CARBON FIXATION
- 1 molecule of Carbon Dioxide contains 1
 CALVIN CYCLE carbon atom.
- It is a cyclic reaction occurring in the - 1 molecule of RuBP (an acceptor
dark phase of photosynthesis. Occurs molecule) contains 5 carbon atoms.
in the Stroma in the Chloroplast. - Three molecules of Carbon Dioxide
- The Calvin cycle was first observed (CO2) and Three molecules of RuBP are
by American Biochemist, MELVIN bonded by the enzyme RuBisCO.
CALVIN in chlorella, or unicellular - This creates Three 6-carbon initial
(acceptor) molecules that are
green algae.
immediately split in half due to
- Also called the “C3 Cycle” because
instability.
3-phosphoglyceric acid is the first - After the ‘split,’ we now have Six 3-
stable compound in the cycle. phosphoglycerate or ‘PGA’ (Two are
formed each split).
 COMPONENTS INVOLVED: - It is called “Carbon Fixation” because the
- RuBisCO (Ribulose bisphosphate carbon atom of CO2 is *fixed* to the
Carboxylase-Oxygenase) RuBP.
 The enzyme that binds RuBP and Co2

- PGA (3-phosphoglycerate) 2.) REDUCTION

 When the carbon atom from the Co2 binds - ATP and NADPH from the light-
with the RuBP, it forms an initial 6-carbon dependent reaction come into play. Since
molecule that immediately splits into two there are Six PGAs, Six molecules of
shorter chains (PGA). both ATP and NADPH are also used.
- In 1 PGA molecule, 1 ATP molecule
- G3P (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) gives a phosphate group to the PGA
 These are formed when ATP and NADPH molecule; ATP becomes ADP, and the
react with PGA molecules. ATP becomes PGA molecule becomes 1,3-
ADP; NADPH becomes NADP+. Bisphosphoglycerate (BGP).
 (may also take the abbreviation of GA3P, - The BGP then receives a hydrogen atom
GADP, GAP, and GALP); from NADPH, however, it loses one
 Other terms for G3P: Triose Phosphate phosphate group as well; NADPH
(TP), and Phosphoglyceraldehyde becomes NADP+, and the BGP molecule
(PGAL). becomes Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(G3P).
- Glucose - In reduction, the Six PGA molecules
 Are formed from 2 molecules of G3P become Six G3P molecules.
(from different sets of Calvin Cycles), - ADP and NADP+ then return to the light-
therefore having 6 carbon atoms. dependent reaction to become ATP and
NADPH.
- It is called “Reduction” because of
*losing* phosphate groups (and electrons
in the process).
 1.) From Six G3P --> Five G3P.

P P

P P
3.) REG ENERATION Exits the
- After reduction, we are left with SIX P P cycle
G3P MOLECULES.
- When Three new CO2 molecules enter 2.) Three G3P forms 9-carbon chain. ATP donates 1 Phosphate group.
the cycle, One G3P molecule exits the P P
cycle, waiting to be synthesized into
glucose.
- The other Five G3P molecules go *From ATP*

P P P P
through a recycling process to reproduce
Three RuBP molecules.
- The first Three G3P forms a chain of 9 3.) First RuBP breaks off the chain.
carbon atoms. The first RuBP molecule P P
(with 5 carbon atoms) is trimmed from
the chain due to instability. *From ATP*
First RuBP Acceptor Molecule

- Being left with a 4-carbon chain, the P P P P

remaining Two G3P forms a 10-carbon
4.) Other Two G3P molecule forms a 10-carbon chain.
chain. It is then split in half due to
instability, forming the next Two RuBP *From ATP*

P P P
P
molecules.
- These Three RuBP molecules are used 5.) The chain splits in half, forming the other Two RuBP molecules.
Third RuBP Acceptor Molecule
again in the Calvin Cycle. Yay! Second RuBP Acceptor Molecule
P
P P P
 GenBio: GLYCOLYSIS 3.) Phosphorylation
 Starting Compound: Fructose 6-Phosphate
S.E.P.A
 GLYCOLYSIS  Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase
- It is the first step in the breakdown of  Product: Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP)
glucose to extract energy for cellular  ATP Used: 1 ATP
metabolism. - The Phosphofructokinase enzyme
- In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, all st
phosphorylates the 1 carbon atom in
10 reactions of glycolysis occur in the Fructose 6-phosphate, turning it into
Cytosol in the Cytoplasm. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
- The pathway can be divided into two - It uses 1 ATP by extracting one of its
phases: the "investment" phase, in which phosphate groups and transferring it to
two ATP molecules are consumed, and the F6P molecule.
the "payoff" phase, which produces four (F6P  F1,6BP & ATP  ADP).
ATP, two NADH, and two pyruvate
molecules, yielding a net gain of two ATP 4.) Cleavage
per glucose molecule.  Starting Compound: Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
 Enzyme: Fructose Bisphosphate Aldolase
S.E.P.A
 Products: Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP)
 ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
1.) Phosphorylation  ATP Used: N/A
 Starting Compound: Glucose
S.E.P.A - The enzyme Fructose Bisphosphate
 Enzyme: Hexokinase Aldolase has the ability to breakdown the
 Product: Glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) compound Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
 ATP Used: 1 ATP turning it into DHAP and G3P.
- The Hexokinase enzyme phosphorylates
the 6th carbon atom in glucose, turning it
into Glucose 6-phosphate. 5.) Conversion of DHAP to G3P
- It uses 1 ATP by extracting one of its (Isomerization) Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
phosphate groups and transferring it to S.E.P.A
 Starting Compound:
the glucose molecule; ATP  ADP.  Enzyme: Triosephosphate Isomerase
 Product: Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
 ATP Used: N/A
2.) Isomerization - The enzyme Triosephosphate Isomerase
 Starting Compound: Glucose 6-phosphate
S.E.P.A turns DHAP into its isomer G3P.
 Enzyme: Phosphoglucoisomerase
 Product: Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P)
 ATP Used: N/A  BY THE END OF THE ENERGY
- Isomers refer to compounds with the
INVESTMENT PHASE:
same content but different arrangements.
- 2 ATP is used
Example: Glucose (that has C6H12O6) has
- 2 G3P is produced
an isomer called Fructose (that also has
C6H12O6)
- The phosphoglucoisomerase enzyme
turns glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-
phosphate by rearranging the groups of
the compound.
  ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE
9.) Dehydration
- Note: PRODUCTS ARE OF TWO S.E.P.U
 Starting Compound: 2-Phosphoglycerate
(2) MOLECULES EACH  Enzyme: Enolase
6.) Oxidation  Products: Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
 Starting Compound: Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate  H2O
S.E.P.U
 Enzyme: G3P Dehydrogenase  Used: N/A
 Products: 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG) - The enolase enzyme facilitates the
NADH dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate
 Used: Inorganic Phosphate (Pi), NAD+ turning it into phosphoenolpyruvate by
- The G3P Dehydrogenase, with Inorganic removing the only hydroxyl (OH) present
Phosphate (Pi) and Nicotinamide Adenine in the compound.
Dinucleotide (NAD+) turns G3P into 1,3- - The removed hydroxyl (OH) is bound to
Bisphosphoglycerate. become H2O when it binds with a
- Hydrogen of G3P is replaced with Pi and hydrogen atom.
the hydrogen is fixed to NAD+ turning it - In short, PEP is just PGA without the
into NADH. hydroxyl.

7.) Dephosphorylation 10.) Second Dephosphorylation

 Starting Compound: 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate S.E.P.U
 Starting Compound: Phosphoenolpyruvate
S.E.P.U
 Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate Kinase  Enzyme: Pyruvate Kinase
 Products: 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA)  Products: Pyruvate (Pyr)
ATP ATP
 Used: ADP  Used: ADP
- The Phosphoglycerate Kinase catalyzes - The enzyme Pyruvate Kinase enzyme
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, turning it into transfers the phosphate group from PEP
3-phosphoglycerate. to ADP turning it into ATP.
- One phosphate group of 1,3BGA is (PEP  Pyr & ADP  ATP)
transferred to ADP, making it ATP.
(1,3BGA  PGA & ADP  ATP).
 GLYCOLYSIS IN A NUTSHELL

8.) Phosphate Transfer Glucose + 2ATP  2Pyruvate + 4ATP

 Starting Compound: 3-Phosphoglycerate + 2NADH + 2H2O
S.E.P.U
 Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate Mutase
 Product: 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG)
 Used: N/A
 TYPES OF GLYCOLYSIS
- The Phosphoglycerate Mutase transfers
the phosphate group of 3- - Aerobic
Phosphoglycerate to the next hydroxyl  It uses oxygen. Pyruvate is the
(OH), turning it into 2-Phosphoglycerate. final product
- In short, the second carbon group is - Anaerobic
phosphorylated.  It doesn’t use oxygen. Lactate is
the final product
GenBio: KREBS CYCLE  ANABOLIC PROCESS (Krebs Cycle)
1.) Condensation
 KREBS CYCLE  Starting Compound: Acetyl CoA
- When organisms started to evolve, the  Enzyme: Citrate Synthase
more energy they consumed. Therefore,  Uses: Oxaloacetate, H2O
their metabolic process developed  Products: CoA, Citrate
because they had to produce more ATP - The enzyme Citrate Synthase removes
than glycolysis. Coenzyme A, leaving only the acetyl
- In eukaryotic cells, the Krebs Cycle group to be attached to oxaloacetate. To
occurs in the Mitochondria (or Matrix of make the resulting compound stable, it
the Mitochondria). requires H2O. The resulting compound is
- Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, a German-British called Citrate (A molecule with 6
biologist, physician, and biochemist, was carbons).
a pioneer in the study of cellular - The leftover Coenzyme A (CoA) is now
respiration. He won a Nobel Prize in free-floating.
physiology and medicine for his
discovery. 2.) Isomerization
- The Krebs Cycle has 8 steps.  Starting Compound: Citrate
 Enzyme: Aconitase
 CATABOLIC PROCESS (not  Uses: H2O
included in the 8 steps)  Products: Isocitrate
- For the Krebs Cycle to take place, - The enzyme Aconitase removes H2O
pyruvate must first be converted into from citrate, turning it into cis-aconitate.
Acetyl CoA. - The enzyme Aconitase then adds H2O to
cis-aconitate, turning it into Isocitrate.
1.) Oxidative Decarboxylation
- Note: In short, Aconitase *changed* the
 Starting Compound: Pyruvate
structure of citrate by removing and
 Enzyme: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
adding water.
 Uses: Coenzyme A (CoA), NAD+
- Note: Since it is an isomer, Citrate is the
 Products: CO2, NADH, Acetyl CoA
same as Isocitrate; same contents, but
- Pyruvate contains 3 carbon groups.
different arrangement.
When the enzyme Pyruvate
Dehydrogenase reacts with the 3.) Oxidative Decarboxylation (of
compound, it removes 1 of the carbon isocitrate)
groups turning it into a Hydroxyethyl  Starting Compound: Isocitrate
Group. When this occurs, the released  Enzyme: Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
Carbon atom becomes a Carbon  Uses: NAD+
Dioxide molecule.  Products: NADH, CO2, α-ketoglutarate
- With the presence of NAD+, the - NAD+ oxidizes the Isocitrate by
Hydroxyethyl Group is oxidized, and extracting electrons. NAD+ becomes
is attached to Coenzyme A turning it NADH.
into Acetyl CoA. When this occurs, - Then, the enzyme Isocitrate
Dehydrogenase removes 1 of the carbon
NAD+ becomes NADH.
groups (that becomes CO2), turning it
into alpha-ketoglutarate (a molecule with
5 carbons).
4.) Oxidative Decarboxylation 7.) Hydration
(of α-ketoglutarate)  Starting Compound: Fumarate
 Starting Compound: α-ketoglutarate  Enzyme: Fumarase
 Enzyme: α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase  Uses: H2O
Complex  Products: Malate
 Uses: NAD+, CoA - The enzyme Fumarase adds H2O to make
 Products: NAD+, CO2, Succinyl-CoA up for the removed Hydrogen atoms,
- Similar to the previous step, NAD+ turning it into Malate.
oxidizes the α-ketoglutarate by extracting
electrons. NAD+ becomes NADH. 8.) Dehydrogenation
- Then, the enzyme α-Ketoglutarate  Starting Compound: Malate
Dehydrogenase removes 1 of the carbon  Enzyme: Malate Dehydrogenase
groups (that becomes CO2). This time,  Uses: NAD+
Coenzyme A is reunited with this  Products: NADH, H+, Oxaloacetate
compound, resulting in Succinyl-CoA (a - The enzyme Malate Dehydrogenase
molecule with 4 carbons). removes 2 Hydrogen atoms from Malate.
1 is transferred to NAD+ turning it into
5.) Conversion NADH, and the other 1 becomes free-
 Starting Compound: Succinyl-CoA floating.
 Enzyme: Succinyl-CoA Synthetase - This results in Oxaloacetate.
 Uses: Pi, GDP
 Products: Succinate, GTP
- The enzyme Succinyl-CoA Synthetase  PRODUCTS OF KREBS CYCLE
removes Coenzyme A, turning it into - Per Cycle:
Succinate (Still a molecule with 4  1 GTP (equivalent to 1 ATP)
carbons).  3 NADH
- This reaction produces energy. Free-  1 FADH2
floating Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) is  2 CO2
transferred to Guanosine Diphosphate - Per Glucose (2 pyruvates; multiply by 2
(GDP) to produce Guanosine only)
Triphosphate (GTP).  2 GTP (equivalent to 2 ATP)
 6 NADH
6.) Dehydration  2 FADH2
 Starting Compound: Succinate  4 CO2
 Enzyme: Succinate Dehydrogenase
 Uses: FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide)
 Products: Fumarate, FADH2
- The enzyme Succinate Dehydrogenase
removes 2 Hydrogen atoms from
succinate, turning it into Fumarate.
- These 2 Hydrogen atoms are then
attached to FAD, turning it into FADH2
- Note: the byproduct, FADH2 is used in
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).
 TERMS:
6.) Dehydration (Step 6)
- STEPS:
 Associated with the removal of
1.) Condensation (Step 1)
Hydrogen atoms.
 Associated with the use of water.
7.) Hydration (Step 7)
2.) Isomerization (Step 2)
 Associated with adding Hydrogen
 Same contents, but a different
atoms and an Oxygen atom (H2O)
arrangement.
8.) Dehydrogenation (Step 8)
3-4.) Oxidative Decarboxylation (Steps 3 & 4)
 Associated with moving hydrogen
 Oxidation and Decarboxylation in
atoms.
one step. Oxidation is associated
with NAD+ becoming NADH.
Decarboxylation is associated with
Carbon becoming CO2.

5.) Conversion (Step 5)

 In the Krebs Cycle, when Coenzyme
A is removed from the compound, it
produces energy and reacts with
Inorganic Phosphate and GDP
resulting in GTP. It is the only step
that produces GTP.
- ENZYMES: - USED:
1.) Citrate Synthase (Step 1)  CoA
 It removes Coenzyme A. Coenzyme A. It is free-floating

2.) Aconitase (Step 2)  H2O

 Similar to the function of the Used by enzymes that associate
Isomerase enzyme, however, it uses with hydrogen. It is free-floating.
water.
 NAD+
3.) Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (Step 3) Nicotinamide Adenine
 In the Krebs cycle, this enzyme Dinucleotide. It is free-floating.
initiates decarboxylation after When Hydrogen is added, it
moving hydrogen atoms. becomes NADH (Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide + Hydrogen)
4.) α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase
Complex (Step 4)  FAD
 As a dehydrogenase enzyme, it can Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. It is
move hydrogen atoms. In the Krebs free-floating.
Cycle, it is composed of 24 enzymes. When 2 Hydrogen atoms are added,
Because of this, it can attach CoA it becomes FADH2 (Flavin Adenine
after decarboxylation (when a carbon Dinucleotide + 2 Hydrogen)
group is removed).
 Pi
5.) Succinyl-CoA Synthetase (Step 5) Inorganic Phosphate. It is free-
 Different from synthase because it floating.
requires energy.

6.) Succinate Dehydrogenase (Step 7)

 Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that
moves hydrogen atoms.

7.) Fumerase (Step 7)

 Also called Fumarate Hydratase, this
enzyme helps the compound gain
hydrogen and oxygen.

8.) Malate Dehydrogenase (Step 8)

 (Just like Succinate Dehydrogenase)
Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that
moves hydrogen atoms.
GenBio: ELECTRON TRANSPORT 2.) Protein Complex II: Succinate Dehydrogenase
CHAIN  Starting Molecule: FADH2
 Product: FAD
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN  Electrons Transferred: 2
- It produces most of the ATP during  Hydrogen Pumped: 0
cellular respiration. It uses the  Gradient Concentration: 4
byproducts of the Krebs Cycle.
- It occurs in the Inner Membrane of the - FADH2 approaches Complex II and donates
Mitochondria. 2 electrons to Complex II.
- Albert Lehninger, an American chemist, - FADH2 releases 2 protons (Hydrogen) to the
established the mitochondria as the site mitochondrial matrix and becomes FAD.
of oxidative phosphorylation. - Complex II then donates the 2 electrons to
- Peter Mitchell, a British biochemist Coenzyme Q. Ubiquinone now has 4
contributed his chemiosmotic theory, electrons stored.
explaining how proton gradients drive
ATP synthesis. 3.) Coenzyme Q: Ubiquinone
- The Electron Transport Chain is split into - Coenzyme Q transfers the 4 electrons to
Oxidative Phosphorylation and Complex III.
Chemiosmosis.
4.) Protein Complex III: Cytochrome C Reductase
 OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION  Starting Molecule: N/A
Extra Note: Gradient Concentration - The amount of
Hydrogen ions inside the intermembrane space. The higher  Product: N/A
the amount, the higher the concentration.  Electrons Transferred: 4
 Hydrogen Pumped: 4
1.) Protein Complex I: NADH Dehydrogenase  Gradient Concentration: 8
 Starting Molecule: NADH
 Product: NAD+ - Complex III becomes energized. Therefore,
 Electrons Transferred: 2 allowing Complex III to pump 4 hydrogen
 Hydrogen Pumped: 4 atoms from the mitochondrial matrix
 Gradient Concentration: 4 (outside) to the intermembrane space
(inside).
- NADH approaches Complex I, it donates 2 - After pumping, Cytochrome C Coenzyme
electrons to Complex I. extracts and stores the 4 electrons from
- NADH releases 1 proton (the '1 proton' Complex III.
being Hydrogen) to the mitochondrial
matrix and becomes NAD+. 5.) Cytochrome C (Cyt C): Cytochrome
- Complex I becomes energized. Therefore, Oxireductase Complex
allowing Complex I to pump 4 hydrogen - The Cytochrome C Coenzyme transfers the
atoms from the mitochondrial matrix 4 electrons from Complex III to Complex IV
(outside) to the intermembrane space one at a time.
(inside).
- After pumping, Coenzyme Q (Also known
as Ubiquinone) extracts and stores the 2
electrons from Complex I.
 6.) Protein Complex VI: Cytochrome C  CHEMIOSMOSIS
Oxidase
 Starting Molecule: Oxygen 7.) ATP SYNTHASE:
 Product: H2O  Starting Molecule: ADP, Pi
 Electrons Transferred: 0  Product: ATP
 Hydrogen Pumped: 2  Gradient Concentration: From 10 to 2
 Gradient Concentration: 10
- When the concentration gradient
- Since Complex IV is energized, it pumps
becomes too high, diffusion (from high
only 2 Hydrogen atoms into the
Intermembrane space. concentration to low concentration)
- Since we breathe, 2 free-floating Oxygen occurs. In this case, hydrogen exits the
Molecules approach Complex IV. The 4 intermembrane space back to the
electrons attract 4 hydrogen atoms and bind mitochondrial matrix through the ATP
with oxygen. Therefore, 2 molecules of H 2O Synthase.
are created and ejected from the complex. - The mechanism of the ATP Synthase is
similar to a rotor. When hydrogen passes
through, it rotates. As it spins, free-
floating ADP is fixed to an Inorganic
Phosphate and becomes ATP.
Coenzyme Q Cyt C Coenzyme
- For every 4 Hydrogen atoms that exit, 1
Complex I ATP is produced.
Complex II Complex III Complex IV
- Since we have 10 Hydrogen atoms in the
concentration, 2 ATP molecules will be
created.

 CELLULAR RESPIRATION:  PRODUCTS OF ELECTRON

TRANSPORT CHAIN
- In one chain:
 2 NAD+
 1 FAD
 2 H2O
 2 ATP

- For Every Glucose:

 (May Vary) NAD+
 (May Vary) FAD
 (May Vary) H2O
 30-32 ATP