Chapter 3
Energy & Metabolism
The Role of Energy and Metabolism
All organisms require energy to complete tasks andthis energy comes from metabolism which is
the set of the chemical reactions that release energy for cellular processes.
Energy Transformaation & Conservation
All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond
to their environments. Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical processes that enables
organisms transform the chemical energy stored in molecules into energy that can be used for
cellular processes.
Animals consume food to replenish energy; their metabolism breaks down the carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids to provide chemical energy for these processes.
Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in molecules during the
process of photosynthesis.
Bioenergetics and Chemical Reactions
Scientists use the term bioenergetics to discuss the concept of energy flow through living systems
such as cells. Cellular processes such as the building and breaking down of complex molecules
occur through step-by-step chemical reactions. Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous
and release energy, whereas others require energy to proceed. All of the chemical reactions that
take place inside cells, including those that use energy and those that release energy, are the
cell’s metabolism.
Cellular Metabolism
For every action that requires energy, many chemical reactions take place to provide chemical
energy to the systems of the body, including muscles, nerves, heart, lungs, and brain.
The living cells of every organism constantly use energy to survive and grow. Cells break down
complex carbohydrates into simple sugars that the cell can use for energy.
Muscle cells may consume energy to build long muscle proteins from small amino acid molecules.
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Molecules can be modified and transported around the cell or may be distributed to the entire
organism. Just as energy is required to both build and demolish a building, energy is required
for both the synthesis and breakdown of molecules.
Many cellular processes require a steady supply of energy provided by the cell’s metabolism.
Signaling molecules such as hormones and neurotransmitters must be synthesized and then
transported between cells. Pathogenic bacteria and viruses are ingested and broken down by
cells. Cells must also export waste and toxins to stay healthy, and many cells must swim or
move surrounding materials via the beating motion of cellular appendages like cilia and flagella.
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work or cause change in a system. In biophysics, energy explains how
biological systems such as cells, muscles, and organs perform functions. The SI unit of energy is
the Joule (J).
Energy in metabolism is measured using calorimetry in two ways as;
(a) Direct Calorimetry. Measures heat produced by the body.
(b) Indirect Calorimetry. Measures oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.
Biological systems transform energy from one form to another following the First Law of
Thermodynamics, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be
transformed. Energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or
converted into different forms, but cannot be created or destroyed. Organisms use energy to
survive, grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and for every type of biological process.
The potential energy stored in molecules can be converted to chemical energy, which can
ultimately be converted to kinetic energy, enabling an organism to move.
Eventually, most of energy used by organisms is transformed into heat and dissipated.
Types of Energy
The various types of energy include Kinetic energy, Potential energy, Chemical energy, Electrical
energy, Thermal energy (Heat energy), Radiant energy (Electromagnetic energy), Nuclear
energy, Sound energy.
Kinetic Energy
Energy associated with objects in motion is called kinetic energy. The energy possessed by an
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object because of its motion, equal to one half the mass of the body times the square of its
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velocity. Energy due to motion is given by the Formula, KE = mv 2 , where m = mass, v =
2
velocity.
Examples in biology, movement of blood in vessels, muscle contraction, and motion of
microorganisms
Potential Energy
Energy possessed by an object because of its position (in a gravitational or electric field), or its
condition (as a stretched or compressed spring, as a chemical reactant, or by having rest mass).
Energy stored due to position or configuration. Itis given by the formula; P E = mgh where m
= mass, g = gravitational acceleration, and h = height
Examples in biology, Energy stored in stretched muscles, chemical bonds. Objects transfer their
energy between potential and kinetic states.
Chemical Energy
The net potential energy liberated or absorbed during the course of a chemical reaction Chemical
energy is energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules. Cells obtain chemical energy from food
molecules. The most important biological energy molecule is Adenosine Triphosphate.
On a chemical level, the bonds that hold the atoms of molecules together have potential energy.
This type of potential energy is called chemical energy, and like all potential energy, it can be
used to do work.
The potential energy stored within chemical bonds can be harnessed to perform work for
biological processes. Different metabolic processes break down organic molecules to release
the energy for an organism to grow and survive.
Photosynthesis, Radiant Chemical
Muscle contraction, Chemical Mechanical
Nerve impulse, Chemical Electrical
Metabolism, Chemical Thermal
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Human Metabolism
Human metabolism refers to the sum of all chemical and physical processes occurring in the body
that maintain life. Metabolism is studied in terms of energy transformation, thermodynamics,
and molecular interactions inside living systems and allows the body to; produce energy, build
and repair tissues, maintain body temperature, remove waste products.
Most metabolic reactions occur inside cells and are controlled by enzymes
Metabolic Pathways
Metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions in cells. The processes of making and
breaking down carbohydrate molecules illustrate two types of metabolic pathways. A metabolic
pathway is a step-by-step series of interconnected biochemical reactions that convert a substrate
molecule or molecules through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final
product or products.
Types of Metabolic Pathways
For example, one metabolic pathway for carbohydrates breaks large molecules down into glucose.
Another metabolic pathway might build glucose into large carbohydrate molecules for storage.
The first of these processes requires energy and is referred to as anabolic. The second process
produces energy and is referred to as catabolic. Consequently, metabolism is composed of these
two opposite pathways:
1. Anabolism (building molecules)
2. Catabolism (breaking down molecules)
Anabolic Pathways: Anabolic pathways are those that require energy to synthesize larger
molecules. Anabolic pathways require an input of energy to synthesize complex molecules from
simpler ones. One example of an anabolic pathway is the synthesis of sugar from CO2.
Other examples include the synthesis of large proteins from amino acid building blocks and the
synthesis of new DNA strands from nucleic acid building blocks.
These processes are critical to the life of the cell, take place constantly, and demand
energy provided by ATP and other high-energy molecules like NADH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide) and NADPH.
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Figure 1: Metabolic Pathways(Anabolism & Catabolism).
Catabolic pathways: Catabolic Pathways are those that generate energy by breaking down
larger molecules. Catabolic pathways involve the degradation of complex molecules into simpler
ones, releasing the chemical energy stored in the bonds of those molecules. Some catabolic
pathways can capture that energy to produce ATP, the molecule used to power all cellular
processes.
Other energy-storing molecules, such as lipids, are also broken down through similar catabolic
reactions to release energy and make ATP.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Basal metabolic rate is the minimum amount of energy required to maintain basic life processes at
rest. It includes energy used for; Breathing, Blood circulation, Body temperature maintenance,
Brain activity. The BMR varies accordinf to the following factors; Age, Sex, Body size,
Hormones, and Temperature
Importance of Enzymes
Chemical reactions in metabolic pathways rarely take place spontaneously. Each reaction step
is facilitated, or catalyzed, by a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are important for catalyzing
all types of biological reactions: those that require energy as well as those that release energy
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the major forms of energy for animals and plants. Organisms break
down carbohydrates to produce energy for cellular processes, and photosynthetic plants produce
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carbohydrates.
Plants build carbohydrates using light energy from the sun (during the process of photosynthe-
sis), while animals eat plants or other animals to obtain carbohydrates.
Plants store carbohydrates in long polysaccharides chains called starch, while animals store
carbohydrates as the molecule glycogen. These large polysaccharides contain many chemical
bonds and therefore store a lot of chemical energy. When these molecules are broken down
during metabolism, the energy in the chemical bonds is released and can be harnessed for
cellular processes. All living things use carbohydrates as a form of energy
Energy Production from Carbohydrates (Cellular Respiration)
The metabolism of any monosaccharide (simple sugar) can produce energy for the cell to
use. Excess carbohydrates are stored as starch in plants and as glycogen in animals, ready
for metabolism if the energy demands of the organism suddenly increase. When those energy
demands increase, carbohydrates are broken down into constituent monosaccharides, which are
then distributed to all the living cells of an organism.
Glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) is a common example of the monosaccharides used for energy production.
Inside the cell, each sugar molecule is broken down through a complex series of chemical reactions.
As chemical energy is released from the bonds in the monosaccharide, it is harnessed to synthesize
high-energy Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
The breakdown of glucose during metabolism can be described by the equation:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 −→ 6CO2 + 6H2 O + energy (1)
Producing Carbohydrates (Photosynthesis)
Plants and some other types of organisms produce carbohydrates through the process called
photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy into chemical energy by
building carbon dioxide gas molecules (CO2 ) into sugar molecules like glucose.
This process involves building bonds to synthesize a large molecule, it requires an input of energy
(light) to proceed. The synthesis of glucose by photosynthesis is described by this equation
6CO2 + 6H2 O + energy −→ C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 (2)
As part of plants’ chemical processes, glucose molecules can be combined with and converted
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into other types of sugars. In plants, glucose is stored in the form of starch, which can be broken
down back into glucose via cellular respiration in order to supply ATP.
Free Energy
Free energy is the energy in a system that is available to do usefulwork. Its determines whether
a chemical reaction can occure spontaneously. The most common one is called Gibbs free energy
(G). Gibbs free energy is usable energy or energy that is available to do work. Gibbs free
energy: is the difference between the enthalpy of a system and the product of its entropy and
absolute temperature. Itis given by G = H - TS
A measurement of free energy is used to quantitate these energy transfers. Free energy is called
Gibbs free energy (G) after Josiah Willard Gibbs, the scientist who developed the measurement.
From second law of thermodynamics, all energy transfers involve the loss of some amount of
energy in an unusable form such as heat, resulting in entropy. Gibbs free energy specifically
refers to the energy associated with a chemical reaction that is available after accounting for
entropy. In other words, Gibbs free energy is usable energy or energy that is available to do
work.
Calculating ∆G
Every chemical reaction involves a change in free energy, called ∆G. The change in free energy
can be calculated for any system that undergoes a change, such as a chemical reaction. To
calculate ∆G, subtract the amount of energy lost to entropy (denoted as ∆S) from the total
energy change of the system. This total energy change in the system is called enthalpy and is
denoted as ∆H. The formula for calculating ∆G is as follows,
∆G = ∆H − T ∆S (3)
The standard free energy change of a chemical reaction is expressed as an amount of energy per
mole of the reaction product (either in kilojoules or kilocalories, kJ/mol or kcal/mol; 1 kJ =
0.239 kcal) under standard pH of 7.0, temperature of 25o C, and 100 kilopascals (1 atm pressure),
respectively.
It is important to note that cellular conditions vary considerably from these standard conditions;
therefore, standard calculated ∆G values for biological reactions will be different inside the cell.
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If energy is released during a chemical reaction, then the resulting value from the above equation
will be a negative number. In other words, reactions that release energy have a ∆G < 0. A
negative ∆G also means that the products of the reaction have less free energy than the reactants
because they gave off some free energy during the reaction. Reactions that have a negative ∆G
and, release free energy, are called exergonic reactions.
Understanding which chemical reactions are spontaneous and release free energy is extremely
useful for biologists because these reactions can be harnessed to perform work inside the cell.
Figure 2: Endergonic & Exergonic reactions.
If a chemical reaction requires an input of energy rather than releasing energy, then the ∆G for
that reaction will be a positive value. In this case, the products have more free energy than the
reactants. Thus, the products of these reactions can be thought of as energy-storing molecules.
These chemical reactions are called endergonic reactions; they are non-spontaneous. An
endergonic reaction will not take place on its own without the addition of free energy.
Laws of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be transferred or transformed,
but cannot be created or destroyed. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the total
amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred from place to place or
transformed into different forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
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Living organisms have evolved to obtain energy from their surroundings in forms that they can
transfer or transform into usable energy to do work.
First law of thermodynamics: A version of the law of conservation of energy, specialized for
thermodynamical systems, that states that the energy of an isolated system is constant and can
neither be created nor destroyed. Thermodynamics is the study of heat energy and other types
of energy, such as work, and the various ways energy is transferred within chemical systems.
“Thermo-” refers to heat, while “dynamics” refers to motion.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics deals with the total amount of energy in the universe. The law
states that this total amount of energy is constant. In other words, there has always been, and
always will be, exactly the same amount of energy in the universe.
Energy exists in many different forms. According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can
be transferred from place to place or changed between different forms, but it cannot be created
or destroyed. The transfers and transformations of energy take place around us all the time.
The System and Surroundings
Thermodynamics often divides the universe into two categories: the system and its surroundings.
The system refers to a given chemical reaction and the container in which it takes place.
The first law of thermodynamics tells us that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, so
we know that the energy that is absorbed in an endothermic chemical reaction must have been
lost from the surroundings. Conversely, in an exothermic reaction, the heat that is released in
the reaction is given off and absorbed by the surroundings.
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Mathematically, we have: ∆E = δEsys + ∆Esurr = 0
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that every energy transfer or transformation increases
the entropy of the universe since all energy transfers result in the loss of some usable energy.
A living cell ‘s primary tasks of obtaining, transforming, and using energy to do work may
seem simple enough, but they are more problematic than they appear. The second law of
thermodynamics explains why: No energy transfers or transformations in the universe are
completely efficient. In every energy transfer, some amount of energy is lost in a form that
is unusable. In most cases, this energy is in the form of heat.
Thermodynamically, heat energy is defined as the energy transferred from one system to another
that is not doing work. For example, some energy is lost in the form of heat during cellular
metabolic reactions. This is good for warm-blooded creatures like us because heat energy helps
to maintain our body temperature. Strictly speaking, no energy transfer is completely efficient
because some energy is lost in an unusable form.
Entropy
Entropy: Entropy is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system. Gases have higher entropy
than liquids, and liquids have higher entropy than solids. Entropy changes also occur in chemical
reactions. In an exergonic chemical reaction where energy is released, entropy increases because
the final products have less energy inside them holding their chemical bonds together. That
energy has been lost to the environment, usually in the form of heat.
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High entropy means high disorder and low energy. To better understand entropy, remember
that it requires energy to maintain structure. For example, think about an ice cube. It is
made of water molecules bound together in an orderly lattice. This arrangement takes energy
to maintain. When the ice cube melts and becomes water, its molecules are more disordered,
in a random arrangement as opposed to a structure. Overall, there is less energy in the system
inside the molecular bonds. Therefore, water can be said to have greater entropy than ice.
This holds true for solids, liquids, and gases in general. Solids have the highest internal energy
holding them together and therefore the lowest entropy. Liquids are more disordered and it takes
less energy to hold them together. Therefore, they are higher in entropy than solids, but lower
than gases, which are so disordered that they have the highest entropy and lowest amount of
energy spent holding them together.
Activation Energy (Ea )
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction. In
biological systems, it determines how quickly reactions like enzyme-catalyzed reactions can occur.
Without sufficient energy, reactants cannot reach the transition state, and the reaction will not
proceed. Itis measured in kJ/mol or cal/mol.
Energy Profile of a Reaction
Many chemical reactions, and almost all biochemical reactions do not occur spontaneously and
must have an initial input of energy (called the activation energy) to get started. Activation
energy must be considered when analyzing both endergonic and exergonic reactions.
Exergonic reactions have a net release of energy, but they still require a small amount of energy
input before they can proceed with their energy-releasing steps. This small amount of energy
input necessary for all chemical reactions to occur is called the activation energy.
Every chemical reaction has an energy landscape as shown below:
Reactants is the starting molecules. Transition state is the High-energy, unstable state that
reactants must reach, and the products is the molecules after the reaction
Most biological reactions are thermodynamically favorable, but slow without a catalyst because
of high activation energy. Enzymes lower, allowing reactions to proceed faster without altering
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Figure 3: Endergonic & Exergonic reactions.
the final free energy ∆G. Example: Breakdown of glucose in glycolysis.
The uncatalyzed reaction would be extremely slow, but enzymes like hexokinase reduce the
activation barrier.
Activation Energy is affected by temperature in such a way that higher temperatures increase
kinetic energy of molecules making more molecules reach faster reactions.
Catalysts as well affects the enzymes to stabilize the transition state.
Mathematical Description
−Ea
Reaction rate is related to Ea by the Arrhenius equation given by k = A exp RT : Where: k =
reaction rate constant A = frequency factor (collision frequency) Ea = activation energy R =
·
universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol K) T = absolute temperature in Kelvin
Activation energy: Activation energy is the energy required for a reaction to proceed; it is lower
if the reaction is catalyzed. The horizontal axis of this diagram describes the sequence of events
in time.
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Sample Questions
1.1a) Define the following physical magnitudes and give their SI units:
i) Force
ii) Pressure
iii) Energy
iv) Power
b.) Explain the difference between fundamental physical quantities and derived quantities with
two biological examples.
c.) What is dimensional analysis? Explain its importance in biological physics.
d.) State the principle of geometric similarity in biological scaling.
e.) Define allometric scaling and give two biological examples.
f.) Explain why large animals have thicker bones relative to their size than small animals.
g.) Distinguish between isometric scaling and allometric scaling.
1.2a.) Explain why metabolic rate does not increase linearly with body mass in animals.
b) Discuss the square–cube law and its implications for biological organisms.
c) Explain how surface area to volume ratio affects heat loss in animals.
d) Why do small animals lose heat faster than large animals?
e) Explain why insects can fall from great heights without injury compared to larger animals.
1.3a.) If the length of an organism increases by a factor of 3, determine how the following change
assuming geometric similarity: i) Surface area ii) Volume iii) Mass b) The metabolic rate B of an
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organism scales with body mass M according to B = Bo M 4 . If a 10 kg animal has a metabolic
rate of 200 W, estimate the metabolic rate of a 100 kg animal.
c.) A bone must support the weight of an animal. If body mass scales with length and bone
strength scales with cross-sectional area, determine how bone diameter must scale with body
size.
L2
d.) The diffusion time of a molecule is given by t ≈ Where L is distance and D is diffusion
D
coefficient. Explain how diffusion time changes if the distance is doubled.
1.4 a) Discuss the importance of scaling laws in biology and medicine.
b) Explain the role of physical magnitudes in understanding biological systems, giving examples
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from circulation, respiration, and locomotion.
c.) Describe the applications of dimensional analysis in biophysics.
d) Discuss the effects of body size on physiology and biomechanics.
2.1a) Define a biological membrane.
b) State the main components of the plasma membrane.
c.) Describe the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure proposed by S. J. Singer and Garth
L. Nicolson.
d.) List three functions of biological membranes in cells.
e.) Differentiate between integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
f.) What is meant by membrane fluidity?
g.) Define selective permeability.
h.) State the role of cholesterol in cell membranes.
i.) What is membrane potential?
j.) Explain the term lipid bilayer.
2.2 a) Draw and label the structure of a biological membrane.
b) Explain the role of the following membrane components:
i) Phospholipids
ii) Proteins
iii) Cholesterol
iv) Carbohydrates
2.3 a) Explain the mechanisms of passive transport across membranes.
b) Distinguish between diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
a) Describe active transport across biological membranes.
b) Explain the role of the Sodium-potassium pump in maintaining membrane potential.
2.4a) Define membrane permeability.
b) Explain the factors that influence permeability of molecules through membranes.
2.5) The diffusion flux J across a membrane is described by Fick’s First Law of diffusion:
dC
J = −D
dx
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dC
Where, D= diffusion coefficient, and = concentration gradient
dx
a) Explain the meaning of each term in the equation.
b) Calculate the diffusion flux if D = 2 × 10−9 m2 /sand the concentration gradient is
5 × 105 mole/m4 .
2.6) The membrane potential can be estimated using the Nernst Equation.
a) Write down the Nernst equation.
b) Explain the significance of each term.
2.7a) If the permeability of a membrane to a solute doubles, explain how this affects the rate of
diffusion.
b) Explain why lipid bilayers form spontaneously in water.
c) Discuss the importance of membrane proteins in cell signaling.
d) Explain how temperature affects membrane fluidity.
e) Why are cell membranes described as dynamic structures?
f) Describe the structure and functions of biological membranes.
g) Discuss the physical principles governing transport across membranes.
h) Explain the biophysical basis of membrane potential.
i) Discuss the role of membranes in cell communication and transport.
3.1a) Define energy and state its SI unit.
b) Distinguish between kinetic energy and potential energy.
c.) State the First Law of Thermodynamics.
d.) State the Second Law of Thermodynamics and explain its biological significance. 3.2a) What
is metabolism?
b) Differentiate between anabolism and catabolism.
c.) What is free energy?
d.) State the role of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) in cellular metabolism.
3.3a) Define basal metabolic rate (BMR).
b.) What is meant by energy transformation in biological systems?
3.4a) Explain the concept of energy conservation in biological systems.
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b) Describe how energy is transformed during cellular metabolism.
3.5a) Describe the process of Cellular respiration.
b) Explain how energy is stored in ATP during metabolism.
3.6a) Explain the concept of Gibbs free energy.
b) Write the equation for Gibbs free energy and explain each term.
3.7a) Discuss the importance of enzymes in metabolism.
b) Explain how enzymes influence energy changes in biochemical reactions.
3.8) The Gibbs free energy change is given by the equation: ∆G − ∆H − T ∆S Where, ∆G=
change in free energy, ∆H = change in enthalpy, T = temperature, ∆S = change in entropy.
If ∆H = 50kJ T = 300K, and∆S = 0.1kJ/K, calculate ∆G.
3.9) A person consumes 2500 kcal of energy per day. Convert this energy into joules.(1 kcal =
4184 J)
If the hydrolysis of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) releases about 30.5 kJ/mol, calculate the
total energy released from 5 moles of ATP.
3.10a) Explain why living organisms require a constant supply of energy.
b.) Explain the relationship between metabolism and thermodynamics.
c.) Why is ATP considered the energy currency of the cell?
d.) Discuss how energy flow maintains biological order in living systems.
3.11a) Discuss the role of thermodynamics in biological energy transformations.
b.) Explain the biophysical principles underlying metabolism in living organisms.
c.) Discuss the energy flow in living systems from food molecules to ATP production.
d.) Explain how energy efficiency is maintained in metabolic pathways.
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