Year 9 Revision Notes: Chemistry and Physics

Topic Notes
Atomic Structure Atoms are the smallest units of an element that still retain the properties of that element. They are made up of
a nucleus surrounded by electrons in energy levels.
The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive charge and determine the identity of the
element. Neutrons have no charge and contribute to mass and stability. Electrons are negatively charged and
occupy shells around the nucleus.
In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons.
Atomic Number and The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom and defines the element. The mass number is the
Mass Number total number of protons and neutrons.
Neutrons are calculated using the relationship:
Mass number − atomic number = neutrons
Electrons in a neutral atom equal the number of protons.

Ions An ion is an atom that has gained or lost electrons and therefore carries an electric charge.
When an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive ion. When it gains electrons, it becomes a negative ion.
Protons do not change during ion formation, only electrons change. This means the identity of the element
stays the same but its charge changes.
Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but diEerent numbers of
neutrons. This means they have the same atomic number but diEerent mass numbers.
Because neutrons diEer, isotopes have slightly diEerent masses but similar chemical behaviour.
For example, carbon-12 and carbon-14 are both carbon because they each have six protons, but they diEer in
neutron number.

Bohr Model The Bohr model represents electrons arranged in fixed energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
The first shell holds up to two electrons, the second holds up to eight, and the third also holds up to eight for
basic models used at this level.
Electrons fill lower energy levels first before moving to higher ones. For example, sodium has an electron
arrangement of 2,8,1.
Radioactivity and Some atoms are unstable and undergo radioactive decay to become more stable. This process releases
Nuclear Decay radiation.
- Alpha decay occurs when a nucleus emits an alpha particle, which contains two protons and two
neutrons. This reduces the atomic number by two and the mass number by four, producing a new
element. Alpha particles are highly ionising but have low penetration and can be stopped by paper or
skin.
- Beta negative decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus changes into a proton and releases an
electron (beta particle). This increases the atomic number by one but does not change the mass
number. This process forms a new element because the number of protons changes. For example,
carbon-14 becomes nitrogen-14.
Half Life Half-life is the time taken for half of a radioactive sample to decay. It is constant for each isotope.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years. If a sample reduces from 10 g to 2.5 g, two half-lives have passed, so
the total time is 11 400 years.
Waves A wave is a transfer of energy without the transfer of matter. Waves can be mechanical, such as sound, or
electromagnetic, such as light. Waves can be classified into two main types: transverse and longitudinal
waves.
Transverse Waves In transverse waves, the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles (perpendicular) to the direction the
wave travels.
This means the wave moves forward while the particles move up and down (or side to side).
Examples include light waves and water waves.

Longitudinal Waves In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction the wave travels.
This produces areas of compression and rarefaction.
Sound waves are the main example of longitudinal waves.
Wave Properties Amplitude is the height of a wave from its rest position and relates to energy and loudness in sound waves.
Wavelength is the distance between two matching points on a wave, such as crest to crest.
Frequency is the number of waves passing a point each second and is measured in hertz.
Higher frequency means higher pitch, while lower frequency means lower pitch.

Wave Equations !
Frequency is calculated using: f =
"

Wave speed is calculated using: v=fλ

Wave speed depends on both frequency and wavelength.

Sound Sound waves are longitudinal waves that require a medium such as air, water or solids.
Amplitude determines loudness and frequency determines pitch.

Light and Colour White light is made up of all visible colours.

Objects appear a certain colour because they absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others.
A blue object appears blue because:
• it absorbs all other wavelengths of visible light
• it reflects blue light
A white object reflects all wavelengths of light.
A black object absorbs all wavelengths and reflects very little light, which is why it appears dark.
Reflection Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
When light reflects:
• the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
• smooth surfaces (like mirrors) produce clear reflection
• rough surfaces scatter light in many directions
Reflection allows us to see objects because light bounces from the object into our eyes.
Refraction Refraction is the bending of light when it moves from one medium to another.
This happens because light changes speed when it enters materials with diEerent densities.
Examples:
• air to water (light slows down and bends)
• water to air (light speeds up and bends away from the normal)
Refraction explains eEects such as:
• objects appearing bent in water
• lenses focusing light in glasses and cameras

Heat Transfer Heat always moves from hotter areas to cooler areas.
Conduction Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between particles. It occurs mainly in solids,
especially metals, where particles vibrate and pass energy along.
Convection Convection is heat transfer through fluids (liquids and gases). Warm fluid becomes less dense and rises, while
cooler fluid sinks, creating a convection current.

Radiation Radiation is heat transfer through electromagnetic waves and does not require particles. It can travel through a
vacuum, such as heat from the Sun.
Heat transfer
example

Electricity An electric circuit requires a power source, wires and a complete closed loop for current to flow.
If a circuit is broken, current stops and devices turn oE.
Current Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a circuit. In most circuits this charge is carried by
electrons moving through wires.
Current is measured in amperes (A) using an ammeter. It tells us how much charge passes a point each
second.
Current is the same at all points in a simple series circuit because there is only one path for the charge to
follow.
Voltage (potential Voltage is the energy transferred per unit charge between two points in a circuit. It can also be thought of as
diJerence) the “push” that drives electric current through a circuit.
Voltage is measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter.
A higher voltage means more energy is available to push electrons through the circuit, resulting in a greater
current if resistance stays the same.
Resistance Resistance is a measure of how much a component or material opposes the flow of electric current.
It is measured in ohms (Ω).
Materials with high resistance make it harder for current to flow, while materials with low resistance allow
current to flow easily.
Resistance can be aEected by:
• the material (metals have low resistance, insulators have high resistance)
• length of wire (longer wires increase resistance)
• thickness of wire (thicker wires decrease resistance)
• temperature (higher temperature usually increases resistance in metals)
Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law describes the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in a circuit.
It states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it, provided
temperature remains constant.
The relationship is: V=IR

If voltage increases and resistance stays the same, current increases.

If resistance increases and voltage stays the same, current decreases.

Series Circuits In a series circuit:

• current is the same everywhere
• voltage is shared between components
• total resistance increases as more components are added
Adding more components increases resistance and reduces current.
Parallel Circuits In a parallel circuit:
• current splits between diEerent paths
• voltage is the same across each branch
• total resistance decreases as more branches are added
Parallel circuits allow current to take multiple paths.
Current and voltage
in circuits