1

INTRODUCTION TO
PROCESS CONTROL
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many
process applications. The purpose of this book is to examine the elements and
methods of control system operation used in industry to control industrial
processes (hence the term process control). This chapter will present an overall
view of process-control technology and its elements, including important
definitions. Later chapters will study the elements of process control in more
detail.

This chapter introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control
is important, and identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured.
The following five sections are included in this chapter:
• The importance of process control
• Control theory basics
• Components of control loops
• Controller algorithms and tuning
• Process control systems

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1.2 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Control means to regulate, direct, command, or govern. A system is a

collection, set, or arrangement of elements (subsystems). A control system is an
interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will
provide a desired system response. Hence, a control system is an arrangement
of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to command,
regulate, direct, or govern itself or another system.
The technology of artificial control was first developed using a human as an
integral part of the control action. When we learned how to use machines,
electronics, and computers to replace the human function, the term automatic
control came into use.

1.2.1 Process-Control Principles

In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the value of some quantity.
To regulate means to maintain tl1at quantity at some desired value regardless
of external influences. The desired value is called the reference value or set-
point.

The Process

Figure 1 shows the process to be used for this discussion. Liquid is

flowing into a tank at some rate Q in and out of the tank at some rate Q out·
The liquid in the tank has some height or level h. It is known that the
flow rate out varies as the square root of the height so the higher the level
the faster the liquid flows out. If the output now rate is not exactly equal
to the input flow rate, the tank will either empty, if Q out > Q in. or
overflow, if Q out ˂ Q in ·

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 (a)

(b)
Qin = Flowing in rate
Qout = Flowing out rate

Qout > Qin →h Decrease & Qout ˂ Qin →h Increase

Fig. 1: The objective is to regulate the level of liquid in the tank, h, to the value H.

This process has a property called self-regulation. This means that for some
input now rate, the liquid height will rise until it reaches a height for which
the output flow rate matches the input flow rate. A self-regulating system
does not provide regulation of a variable to any particular reference value.
In this example the liquid level will adopt some value for which input and
output flow rates are the same and there it will stay. But if the input flow
rate changed, then the level would change also, so it is not regulated to a
reference value.
Suppose we want to maintain the level at some particular value H in Figure
1, regardless of the input flow rate. Then something more than self-
regulation is needed.

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 Human-Aided Control

Figure 2 shows a modification of the tank system to allow artificial

regulation of the level by a human. To regulate the level so that it
maintains the value H. It will be necessary to employ a sensor to measure
the level. This has been provided via a ''sight tube" S as shown in Figure 2.
The actual liquid level or height is called the controlled variable. In
addition, a valve has been added so the output flow rate can be changed
by the human. The output flow rate is called the manipulated variable or
controlling variable .
Now the height can be regulated apart from the input flow rate using
the following strategy: The human measures the height in the sight tube
and compares the value to the setpoint. If the measured value is larger,
the human opens the valve a little to let the flow out increase, and thus
the level lowers toward the setpoint. If the measured value is smaller than
the setpoint, the human closes the valve a little to decrease the flow out
and allow the level to rise toward the setpoint.

Fig. 2: A human can regulate the level using a sight tube, S, to compare the
level, h, to the objective, H. and adjust a valve to change the level.

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In Figure 2 a human has been added to the process. In this case the person can
adjust the height by opening and closing the valve to change Q in such a way that
out

the height can be adjusted. In this case the controlled variable is still the height,
but the height can be manipulated by a person changing the manipulated or
controlling variable Q .
out

Automatic Control To provide automatic control. the system is modified

as shown in Figure 3. So machines, electronics, or computers replace the
operations of the human. An instrument called a sensor is added that is able to
measure the value of the level and convert it into a proportional signal s. This
signal is provided as input to a machine, electronic circuit, or computer, called the
controller. This performs the function of the human in evaluating the measurement
and providing an output signal u to change the valve setting via an actuator
connected to the valve by a mechanical linkage. When automatic control is applied
to systems like the one shown in Figure 3, which are designed to regulate the
value of some variable to a setpoint, it is called process control.

Fig. 3: An automatic level-control system replaces the human with a controller

and uses a sensor to measure the level.

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In Fig. 3 the person is replaced by an automatic control system. The height is
measured by a sensor (a float or electronic), and a controller (typically a
microcomputer or other electronic circuitry) will signal an actuator to open/close
the valve controlling Qout Again the height is adjusted to a set point H by
manipulating Qout

More control Examples

Servomechanisms. The goal of such systems is to move the arm of the robot
using servo-motors from point A to point B, or any of series of movements.
Often used in repetitive manufacturing processes This course will NOT cover
such systems, although they use similar technologies. This course concentrates
on PROCESS Control.

Fig. 4: Servomechanism-type control systems are used to move a robot arm from
point A to point B in a controlled fashion.

1.3 Process Control Block Diagram

1.3.1 Description of Process Control

• Process control is the automatic control of an output variable
• The sensor senses the output variable (controlled variable) and compares
it to the desired value
• Controlled variable is sent to the controller to calculate error

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 • Controller sends a correct signal to adjust the input variable (Manipulated
variable)

Fig. 5: This block diagram of a control loop defines all the basic elements and
signals involved.
1.3.2 Definitions in Controller Loops
• Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the input to correct
• Controlled or measured variable is the monitored output variable from a
process
• Manipulated variable is the input variable or parameter to a process that is
varied by a control signal from the processor to an actuator.
• Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable being
monitored by a sensor.
• An error signal is the difference between the set point and the amplitude of
the measured variable.
• A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the actuator to set
the level of the input variable.

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1.3.3 Elements in Controller Loops
• Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as temperature,
• light intensity, or motion
• Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to another

Fig. 6: Sensors and Transducers devices as the basic elements of control loops.

• Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable in response to
a signal from a controller (Convert electrical signal to mechanical signal)
• Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so that they are
suitable for transmission over long distances with zero or minimal loss of
information.
• Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a signal without
changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a voltage to a current signal.
1.3.4 Controller:
• Controller are the device that receives controlled variable and compare with
desired value
• Example of controller
• P, PI, PD and PID controller
• Microcontroller
• PLC

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 Fig. 6: Discrete-State Control Systems - Sequence of events (PLC).

Example
Fig. 7 shows the block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system. Identify
the following elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the transducer, (c) the actuator, (d)
the transmitter, (e) the controller, (f) the manipulated variable, and (g) the
measured variable.

Fig. 7: The block diagram of a closed-loop flow control system.

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1.3.5 Control System Evaluation
The process to evaluate how well the controller work. The variable used to
measure the performance of the control system is the error.
e(t ) = r − c(t )
1.3.6 Control System Objectives
Control system should make the error zero. However, that is not practical
A practical objectives are:
• The system should be stable
• The system should provide the best possible steady-state regulation
• The system should provide the best possible transient regulation
1.3.7 Stability
Stability is the state that the response of the process is converge to a certain
value.

Fig. 8: A control system can actually cause a system to become unstable.

1.3.8 Steady-state regulation

• The steady-state error should be minimum
• There should be some allowable deviation about the set-point

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 Allowable controlled value = r  c

Fig. 9: Response for a system using only proportional controls leads to overshoot
and non-zero steady-state errors.
1.3.9 Transient Regulation
▪ There should be some controls over a sudden change
▪ A set point is changed to a certain value
▪ The transient regulation specifies how the control system react to bring the
controlled variable to a steady-state value.
▪ Damped response: The response that converge to the steady-state with one
polarity
▪ The settling time is tD which is the time from a beginning of the start of the
disturbance until the controlled variable is within 4% of the reference
(steady-state)

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1.3.10 The maximum error is emax

Fig. 10: One of the measures of control Fig. 11: In cyclic or underdarnped
system performance is how the system response the variable will exhibit
responds to changes of set point or a oscillations about the reference value.
transient disturbance.

1.3.11 Cyclic Response

Another type of criterion applies to those cases in which the response to a set point
change or transient is as shown in Figure 11. The transient response is oscillate.
The nature of the response is modified by adjusting the control loop
parameters, which is called tuning. There may be large maximum error but short
duration or long duration with small maximum error, and everything in between.

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 • Criteria are:

– Minimum area

A =  e(t ) dt = minimum
– Quarter-amplitude
amplitude of each peak is 1/4 of
the preceding peak
Fig. 12: Two criteria for judging the
quality of control-system response are
the minimum area and quarter
amplitude.
1.4 Evaluation Criteria
▪ System must be stable
▪ Best Response Parameters
o Fast response
o Minimum overshoot
o Minimum steady state error
▪ Minimum Integral Absolute Error
o Maximum quarter amplitude damp
1.5 Analog and Digital Processing

Classical controller is characterized by sophisticated electronic circuits. Data

represent by voltage and current. Refer to as analog processing. Modern
controller is characterized by state of binary number. Refer to as digital
processing

1.6 Data Representation

The representation of data refers to how the magnitude of some physical

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 variable is represented in the control loop. For example, if a sensor outputs a
voltage whose magnitude varies with temperature, then the voltage
represents the temperature. Analog and digital system represent data in very
different fashions.

1.6.1 Analog Data

▪ Analog data is the data that is

represented by a time varying
signal (a smooth and continuous
variation of signal)
▪ Any information may be conveyed
by an analog signal; often such a
signal is a measured response to
changes in physical phenomena,
Figure 13a: When nonlinear data are
such as sound, light, temperature,
represented digitally, losses in
position, or pressure, and is
information can occur.
achieved using a transducer.
Figure 13a shows an analog relationship between some variable c and its
representation, b. Notice that for every value of c within the range covered there
is a unique value of b. If c changes by some small amount :, then b will change
by a proportional amount, b.

1.6.2 Digital Data

TABLE 1.1
Decimal-binary encoding
Voltage Binary Word
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111 Figure 13b: When nonlinear data are
8 1000 represented digitally, losses in information
9 1001 can occur.
10 1010

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The consequence of digital representation of data is that the smooth and continuous
relation between the representation and the variable data value is lost. In- stead, the
digital representation can take on only discrete values. This can be seen in Figure
13b, where a variable c is represented by a digital quantity n. Notice that variations
of c, such as c, may not result in any change in n. The variable must change by
more than some minimum amount, depending on where in the curve the change
occurs, before a change in representation is assured.

The reason for this discrete representation is that a finite number of binary
number digits are used to represent data digitally. For example, suppose a
variable voltage is to be represented digitally by a four-digit binary number. If
each bit represents 1 V, then the resulting representation is shown in Table 1.1.
Note that the minimum resolution is 1 V. The representation cannot distinguish
between 4.25 and 4.75 V because both are represented by the binary number
01001.

Figure 14: An ADC converts analog data, such as voltage, into a digital
representation, in this case 4 bits.

Data Conversions Special devices are employed to convert analog

voltages into a digital representation. These are called analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs). In a control system the sensor often produces an analog
output such as a voltage. Then an ADC is used to convert that voltage into a
digital representation for input to the computer. Figure 14 shows how some

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ADC might be used to convert voltage into a 4-bit digital signal as
illustrated in Table 1.1.
Digital-to-analog converters (DACs) convert a digital signal into an analog
voltage. These devices are used to convert the control output of the computer
into a form suitable for the final control element.
Both ADCs and DACs are covered in greater detail in Chapter 3.

1.7 ON/OFF Control: (Practical) ON-OFF controller with hysteresis

One of the most elementary types of digital processing has been in use for
many years, long before the advent of computers, in fact. This is called ON/OFF
control because the final control element has only two states, on and off. Thus,
the controller output need have only these two states as well. It can be said that
the controller output is a digital representation of a single binary digit, 0 or 1.
Figure 15 shows a diagram of an elementary ON/OFF control system
whose objective is to maintain the temperature in a system at some reference
value Tref. A sensor converts temperature values into a resistance in an analog
fashion: that is. R varies smoothly and continuously with T. Signal conditioning
converts the variable R into an analog voltage, V. Thus, V is an analog of T as well.
The differential amplifier multiplies the difference between F and a reference
voltage, Vref, by a gain K to produce an error voltage Ve.
𝑉𝑒 = 𝐾(𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑉)
Vref is simply defined as that voltage from the converter which would be
produced by Tref · At this point the system becomes digital, because the relays will
either be open or closed so that the heater or cooler will either be on or off.

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Figure 15: This ON/OFF control system can either heat or cool or do neither. No
variation of the degree of heating or cooling is possible.

This is the simplest type of control used in buildings:

▪ If the sensed temperature is below the set-point then the heating system is
fully ON.
▪ If the sensed temperature rises above the set-point then the heating system is
OFF.

1.8 Analog Control

True analog control exists when all variables in the system are analog
representations of another variable. Figure 16 shows a process in which a
heater is used to control temperature in an oven. In this case, however, the
heater output Q is an analog of the excitation voltage VQ , and thus heat can
be varied continuously.

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Figure 15: An analog control system such as this allows continuous variation of
some parameter, such as heat input, as a function of error.

Notice that every signal is an analog: VT an analog of T, the error E an

analog of the difference between the reference, Vref, and the temperature voltage,
VT. The reference voltage is simply the voltage that would result from
measurement of the specified reference temperature, Tref·

1.9 Digital Control

True digital control involves the use of a computer in modem applications,

although in the past digital logic circuits were also used. There are two
approaches to using computers for control.
Supervisory Control

When computers were first considered for applications in control systems,

they did not have a good reliability; they suffered frequent failures and
breakdown. The necessity for continuous operation of control systems precluded
the use of computers to perform the actual control operations. Supervisory control
emerged as an intermediate step wherein the computer was used to monitor the
operation of analog control loops and to determine appropriate setpoints. A single

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computer could monitor many control loops and use appropriate software to
optimize the setpoints for the best overall plant operation.

Figure 16: In supervisory control, the computer monitors measurements and

updates set-points, but the loops are still analog in nature.

If the computer failed, the analog loops kept the process running using the
last setpoints until the computer came back on line. Figure 16 shows how a
supervisory computer would be connected to the analog heater control system
of Figure 15. Notice how the ADC and DAC provide interface between the
analog signals and the computer.
Direct Digital Control

As computers h av e become more reliable and miniaturized, they have

taken over the controller function. Thus, the analog processing loop is discarded.
Figure 17 shows how, in a full computer control system, the operations of the
controller have been replaced by software in the computer. The ADC and DAC

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provide interface with the process measurement and control action. The
computer inputs a digital representation of the temperature, [Link] an analog-to-
digital conversion of the voltage, V T· Error detection and controller action are
determined by software. The computer then provides output directly to the
heater via digital representation, NQ, which is converted to the excitation
voltage VQ by the DAC.

Figure 17: This direct digital control system lets the computer perform the error
detection and controller functions.

Programmable Logic Controllers

Many manufacturing operations are ON/OFF in nature; that is, a

conveyor or heater is either on or off. a valve is either open or closed, and so
on. In the past these types of discrete control functions were often provided by
a system of electrical relays wired according to a complex diagram into what
was called a relay logic controller.
In recent years’ computers have also taken over the operation of such
relay logic controllers, known as programmable logic controllers (PLCs). Even
though originally designed to control discrete-state (ON/OFF) systems, they are
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now also used to implement DDC. Figure 18 shows how the problem of Figure
15 would be implemented using a PLC. Note that thermal-limit switches are
used instead of a sensor to indicate when the temperature has risen above or
fallen below the limit temperatures. These are simply switches designed to
open (or close) when the temperature reaches certain preset limits.

FIGURE 18: A programmable logic controller (PLC) is an outgrowth of ON/OFF-

type control environments. In this case the heater and cooler are either ON or OFF.

➢ Inputs & Outputs are AC level

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1.10 Data Units

• It is essential to use a well-defined set of units of measurement

• Two system of units:

• –The metric system

• –The English system

• In process control, a particular set of metric units is used called the

International System (SI)

1.10.1 International System of Units

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 Units, and Standards

• Process control involves measurement which requires a set of standard unit

of measurement

• The field of process control has many sets of unit and standard

• To ensure the precise technical communication, it is essential to know the

units and how to convert between each standard

EXAMPLE : Find the mass in kg of a 2-lb object.

Solution
The conversion factor between mass in kilograms and pounds is
found from Appendix 1 to be 0.454 kg/lb. Therefore, we have
m = (2 lb)(0.454 kg!lb)
m = 0.908 kg

1.10.2 Analog Data Representation

For measurement systems or control systems, part of the specification is

the range of the variables involved. Thus, if a system is to measure
temperature, there will be a range of temperature specified, for example, 20°C
to 120°C. Similarly, if the controller is to output a signal to a continuous valve,
this signal will be designed to cover the range from fully closed to fully open,
with all the various valve settings in between.
Two analog standards are in common use as a means of representing the
range of variables in control systems. For electrical systems we use a range of
electric current carried in wires, and for pneumatic systems we use a range of
gas pressure carried in pipes. These signals are used primarily to transmit
variable infom1ation over some distance, such as to and from the control room
and the plant. Figure 19 shows a diagram of a process control installation where
current is used to transmit measurement data about the controlled variable to the

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control room, and gas pressure in pipes is used to transmit a feedback signal to a
valve to change flow as the controlling variable.

FIGURE 19: Electric Current And Pneumatic Pressures Are The Most Common
Means Of Information Transmission In The Industrial Environment.

Current Signal The most common current transmission signal is 4 to

20 mA. Thus, in the preceding temperature example, 20°C might be represented
by 4 mA and 120°C by 20 mA, with all temperatures in between represented by a
proportional current.
Current is used instead of voltage because the system is then less dependent
on load. The sensor-to-current converter in Figure 19, also called a transmitter. is
designed to launch a current into the line regardless of load. to a degree.
In Figure 20 a resistor R has been added to the lines connecting the plant to
the control room. In the control room the incoming current has been converted to a
voltage using a resistor RL. Note that if the short

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FIGURE 19: One of the advantages of current as a transmission signal is that it is
nearly independent of line resistance.

Definitions:

Error:
Difference between the measured value of the variable and the desired one.
Transfer Function
Relationship between the input and output for the block
Static describes the input/output relationship when the input is not changing in
time.
Dynamic: describes the input/output relationship when there is time variation of
the input.

FIGURE 20: A transfer function shows how a system-block output variable varies
in response to an input variable, as a function of both static input value and time.

Accuracy

Maximum overall error to be expected from a device. Accuracy is usually

expressed as the inaccuracy such as:
• Measured variable
• Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading
• Percentage of instrument span
• Percentage of the actual reading
Sensitivity

• Measure of the change in output of an instrument for a change in input

• High sensitivity is desirable in an instrument: a large change in output for a
small change in input

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 • Ex: A temperature transducer outputs 10 mV per degree Celsius; sensitivity
= 10 mV/ºC
Instrument accuracy

• Accuracy is determined by comparing an indicated reading to that of a

known standard.

• Standards can be calibrated devices or obtained from the Thai Industrial

Standards Institute, Ministry of Industry
• Accuracy depends on linearity, hysteresis, offset, drift, and sensitivity.
• Accuracy is usually expressed as inaccuracy and appears in several forms:
Measured variable

• The discrepancy is stated in measured value plus the uncertainty

– The accuracy is ± 2 °C would mean there is an uncertainty of ± 2 °C

in any value of temperature measured

Percentage of instrument full-scale

• The discrepancy is calculated as percentage of maximum reading of a device

error in measuremnt (deviation)

%FS = 100
FS of the device
A voltmeter ranges from 0 to 5 V and has a 0.5% FS. What would be the
inaccuracy in any measurement?

Percentage of instrument span

• The discrepancy is calculated as percentage of the range of instrument

measurement capability

error in measuremnt (deviation)

% instrument span = 100
span of the device
For the device that measuring 3% of span for a 20 to 50 psi range pressure,
what would be the accuracy? .

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 Percentage of the Actual Reading

• The deviation from true at the point the reading is being taken and is
expressed as a percentage

error in measuremnt (deviation)

% actual reading = 100
actual reading

Example: In the data sheet of a scale capable of weighing up to 200 lb, the
accuracy is given as ±2.5 percent of a reading. What is the deviation at the 50 and
100 lb readings, and what is the %FSD accuracy?.

System Accuracy

• Overall accuracy of elements in the process control loop

• Overall accuracy is the multiplication of each transfer function

• The output is described as

V  V = ( K  K )(G  G ) C

where

V = output voltage
V = uncertainty in output voltage
K , G = Norminal transfer function
K , G = uncertainty in transfer function
C = input variable

• The output uncertainty can be calculated as

V = GCK  KCG  K GC

• Factoring V out, we get

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 V K G  G  K 
=    
V K G  G  K 

• The last term can be ignore, we get

V K G
= 
V K G
• It shows that the overall uncertainties is the sum of individual uncertainty.

• For practical purpose, it would be more realistic to use root-mean-square

(rms) to represent system uncertainty.

 V   K   G 
2 2

 V  =     
rms  K   G 

Example: Find the system accuracy of a flow process if the transducer transfer
function is 10 mV/(m3/s) ±1.5% and the signal conditioning transfer
function is 2 mA/mV ±0.5%

Sensitivity

• Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of an instrument for a

change in input
• High sensitivity is a device that produce large change in output due to
small change in the input

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1 Hysteresis and Reproducibility
An instrument will not have the same
output value for a given input in many
trials
• This is reproducibility of the device
• This variation is random and
unpredictable
2
3 Hysteresis
Different readings results for a specific FIGURE 21: Hysteresis is a
input, depending on whether the input predictable error resulting from
value is approached from higher or differences in the transfer
lower values. function as the input variable
increases or decreases.
Usually specified as a percentage of full-scale maximum deviation between
the two curves. This effect is predictable if measurement values are always
approached from one direction.

Resolution

• Resolution is the minimum measurable

value of the input variable

• Wire-wound potentiometer sliders moves 1

turn, the resistance change ΔR ohms. Then,
the potentiometer cannot provide a
resistance less than that

resolution = R

Example

A sensor has a transfer function of 5 mV/°C. Find the required voltage

resolution of the signal conditioning if a temperature resolution of 0.2 °C is
required.

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Solution
A temperature change of 0.2°C will result in a voltage change of
mV
(5 o ) (0.2 o C) = 1.0 mV
C
Thus, the voltage system must be able to resolve 1.0 mV

Linearity

• The relationship of input-output should be 1 to 1.

• For each value of input there should exist one unique value of output.

• The relationship can be represented as a straight-line equation

cm = mc + c0
Where,

c = variable to be measured
m = slope of straight line
c0 = offset or intecept of straight line
cm = output of measurement

Example

A sensor resistance change linearly from 100 to 180  as temperature changes

from 20° to 120°. Find the linear equation relating resistance and temperature

Solution
The desired equation would be of the form
R = mT+ Ro
To find the two constants, m and Ro, we form two equations and two unknowns
from the facts given.
100 Ω = (20°C)m + Ro

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 180 Ω = (l20°C)m + Ro
Subtracting the first equation from the second gives
80 Ω = (l00°C)m or m = 0.8 Ω / °C Then, from the
first equation we find
100 Ω = (20°C)(0.8 Ω/ °C) + Ro

from which Ro= 84 Ω

The equation relating resistance and temperature is
R = 0.8 T + 84
One of the specifications of sensor output is the degree to which it is linear
with the measured variable and the span over which this occurs. A measure
of sensor linearity is to determine the deviation of the sensor output from a
best-fit straight line over a particular range. A common specification of
linearity is the maximum deviation from a straight line expressed as
percent of FS.

Linearity
• In sensor and signal
conditioning, output is
represented in some
functional relationship to the
input
• This relationship must be
unique: for each value of the
input variable there exists one
unique value of the output
variable.
• A linear relationship between
input and output is highly FIGURE 22: Comparison of an actual curve
and its best-fit straight line, where the
desirable.
maximum deviation is 5% FS.
Sensor Time Response

• A process-control loop element specifies how the output is related to the

input if the input is constant.

• An element also has a time dependence that specifies how the output

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 changes in time when the input is changing in time.

• This dynamic transfer function is called the time response.

b(t ) = bi + (b f − bi ) 1 − e−t / 

• The dynamic transfer function of a FIGURE 25: The dynamic transfer
process control elements give a function specifies how a sensor
output related to the input change in output varies when the input changes
time instantaneously in time (i.e., a step
• This is called time response change).
• For the sensor, the dynamic transfer
function is represented as

The response of a sensor is lagged because of electrical characteristics of the

sensor

Time constant

• Time constant characterizes how fast the sensor converges to the final output

b(t ) − bi = (b f − bi ) 1 − e −t / 

At t = 1 

b( ) − bi = (b f − bi ) ( 0.632 )

At t = 5  the sensor is approximately reaches the final value

b( ) − bi = (b f − bi ) ( 0.993)

Example

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A sensor measures temperature linearly with a static transfer function of 33
mV/°C and has a 1.5 s time constant. Find the output 0.75 s after the input
changes from 20 °C to 41 °C. Find the error in temperature this represent.

Second-Order Response
In some sensors, the input causes an
oscillated output

R(t ) = R0e− at sin ( 2 f nt )

FIGURE 26: Characteristic
Where, second-order oscillatory time
R(t ) = the transducer output response of a sensor.
a = output damping constant
f n = natural frequency of the oscillation
R0 = amplitude

Process Control Drawing

• Similar to electronics community, the processing industry has developed

standard symbols to represent the elements in a process control system

• The standard for process control drawing is ANSI/ISA S5.1-1984 (R1992)

• Detailed drawing is P&ID

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FIGURE 23 : A P&ID uses special symbols and lines to show the devices and
interconnections in a process-control system.

FIGURE 24: Computers and programmable logic controllers are included in

the P&ID.

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PROBLEMS

1. A process-control loop has a

setpoint of 175°C and an allowable
deviation of ±5°C. A transient
causes the response shown in
Figure. Specify the maximum
error and settling time.

2. Two different tunings of a process control loop result in the transient

responses shown in Figure below. Estimate which would be preferred to
satisfy the minimum area criteria.

3. The second cyclic transient error peak of a response test measures 4.4%.
For the quarter-amplitude criteria, what error should be the third peak value?
4. Does the response of Figure shown in problem 1 satisfy the quarter-
amplitude criterion?
5. An analog sensor converts flow linearly so that flow from 0 to 300 m 3/h
becomes a current from 0 to 50 mA. Calculate the current for a flow of 225
m3/h.
6. For the process-control system of Figure 15. suppose that the relays close at
|1.5| V and open at |1.1| V. This means that as the voltage on the relay
reaches ±1.5 V, it closes, and does not open again until the voltage drops to
1.1 V (i.e., there is a deadband). The amplifier has a gain of 10, the

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 reference is 3 V. and the sensor outputs 150 mV/°C. Calculate the
temperatures at which the heater turns on and off and at which the cooler
tums on and off.
7. The following figure shows a manufacturing process diagram. In this
process For the manufacturing process diagram shown in Figure 25 : The
following independent control requirement.
- Control the level at Lsp.
- Control temperature at Tsp.
- Control the output flow rate at Qsp.
Complete the diagram showing the control loops by using the block diagram
error detector symbols and controller blocks. Include blocks for necessary
signal converters.

Figure 25
8. Prepare a process-control drawing of the system shown in Figure 25 similar
to that shown in Figure 23. Be sure to include signal conversions.

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 9. Explain which of the control loops in Figure 25 are self-regulating; give
reasons why and why not.
10. Assume control systems are in place to provide the requirements of
Problem 7. Now, suppose the output-control valve suddenly sticks in the
closed state. Explain why the tank will not overflow.
11. Figure 26 shows a simple level-control system in which a closed relay
opens the valve and an open relay closes the valve. Input flow is not
controlled. Tile relay closes at 6.0 V and opens again at 4.8 V. The level
sensor bas a transfer function of Vh = 0.8h + 0.4 V.
a. Find the value of amplifier gain K required to open the valve when the
level reaches 1.5 m.
b. At what level does the valve close?
c. Suppose Q1 = 5 m3/min, Q 2 =2m3/min, and Q out =9m 3/min
(when open). What is the period of the level oscillation?

Figure 26

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12. Figure 27 shows a system for measuring the pressure of exploding gases
inside a steel chamber. A computer is used to measure the pressure. The

pressure sensor has transfer function of 𝑉𝑝 = 0.05√𝑝 + 500 and a first-

order time constant of τ = 2.0 s. When an explosion occurs, the pressure
rises vil1ually instantaneously from 0 to some maximum, p max· At t = 0 the
explosion occurs and the computer must take a reading at t = 1 s and
determine the pressure, pmax· This is before the sensor signal has stabilized.

Figure 27

a. Explain how pmax can be determined from a measurement taken at t =

1.0 s.
b. Suppose the sensor signal at t = 1.0 sis 1.45 V. What is the value of
pmax·?
c. Suppose Pmax = 2500 psi; what value will the sensor voltage have at
1.0 s?
d. What equations will the computer be programmed to use in order to find
pmax ·from the sensor voltage taken at 1.0 s?

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