EE6651 - Industrial

Power System Design -

Spring 2024
PROF. DR. ABDUL KHALIQ
EMAIL: AK@[Link]

Course Description (Catalog):

Overview on power supply to end users, mainly including industry
plants and residential buildings; switchboard selection and design for
a specific applications; selection of cable sizes with the consideration
of current rating, and voltage drop under different operating
conditions, such as different ambient temperature and different
bundling; study on and selection of distribution transformers; Fault
current calculation for three-phase symmetrical fault; overcurrent
protection for power distribution circuits; earthing or grounding
system study; lightning protection system study; power quality and
reactive power compensations issues

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 Textbook and Class Times
 Shoaib; Khan, Sheeba Khan; Ghariani Ahmed, Industrial Power Systems, Published by CRC Press
IEC / IEEE Standards

Class Times:
Saturday 09:00 am – 11:30 am

Course Outline:
Power System Planning and Design
Power System Studies
Earthing or Grounding System
Distribution Transformers and Reactors
Instrument Transformers
Fault Analysis
Over current protection
Station Batteries
Application of Protection
Power and Control Cables
HV Substation Design Considerations
Power Quality and Reactive Power Compensation
Impact of Nonlinear Loads on Power System

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 Grading Policy
Assignments: 10%
Midterm Exam: 25%
Projects: 25%
Final Exam: 40 %

The Electric Power System

 Electric power systems have three main building blocks: generation, transmission, and
distribution.
 In terms of capital expenditure, Generation systems make up approximately 40% ;
Transmission systems make up 20%; and Distribution systems make up 40%.
 Distribution systems are the subsystem closest to consumers.
 A distribution system starts with a distribution substation that steps down power from a
transmission level to a primary distribution level between 4.16 and 34.5 kV.
 A distribution substation has a power handling capability of 5 to 25 MVA and may feed 2 to 8
three-phase primary feeders.
 Laterals branch off from primary feeders and power is further stepped down to a secondary
distribution level of 600 V or less via distribution transformers.

ECpE Department
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 The Electric Power System
Secondary lines feed residential loads, while
commercial and industrial loads may be fed
directly from the primary level or via
secondary distribution.
Most distribution systems are overhead due to
cost considerations, but underground systems
are becoming popular due to aesthetics and
higher reliability.

ECpE Department
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Comparison of Distribution and Transmission

Systems

ECpE Department
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 Layout of a
Typical
Distribution
System

Distribution System Devices

Distribution systems have a variety of devices from the substation to customer service
entrances, including:

1. Substation Devices
Compensating Protection Control and
Transformers Switchgear
devices equipment monitoring

2. Primary System Components

Feeders and Compensating Protection Distribution
Laterals Switches
Devices Equipment Transformers

3. Secondary System Components

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 1. Substation Devices
Distribution substations are the link between the transmission system and the distribution
system.
Distribution substations can be located on the periphery or inside cities, and may be part of a
large transmission substation.
Modern distribution substations are typically gas-insulated, with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) being
the most common gas used.
However, there are some environmental concerns associated with SF6, leading researchers to
look for alternatives.

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1. Substation Devices
The right side of figure shows the 115 kV side with incoming feeder, switching equipment, and
busbars, while the left side shows the 12.47 kV side with a power transformer in the middle.

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 1.1 Power Transformers
Power transformers receive power from the transmission system and reduce the voltage for
distribution to consumers.
These transformers have multiple power ratings, such as 15/20/25 MVA OA/FA/FOA, which
indicate the transformer will handle:
◦ up to 15 MVA with cooling provided by convective flow of oil through fins (OA),
◦ up to 20 MVA with additional cooling provided by fans circulating air through fins (FA),
◦ and up to 25 MVA with cooling aided by forced air as well as forced oil circulation (FOA).

Power transformers typically have a load tap changer (LTC) on the secondary side to adjust the
low-voltage side voltage based on system load.

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1.2 Switchgear
Switchgear refers to devices used to open or close electrical paths in a distribution system.
The most important part of these devices is the circuit breaker, which opens the electrical path
under fault conditions.
◦ Circuit breakers can use air, oil, vacuum, or gas as the media for interruption.
◦ High-voltage circuit breakers are typically SF6 -based, while circuit breakers in the 15 kV class often use
vacuum-based interruption mechanisms.

Load break switches are used to interrupt a circuit, but their capacity is limited to the maximum
expected load on the circuit and cannot interrupt a circuit under fault conditions.
Disconnect switches are manual devices used to isolate a circuit or component that has already
been de-energized.

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 1.3 Compensating Device
Compensating devices are used in a distribution system to adjust the voltage or reactive power
flow. These devices include:
Regulators: These devices are autotransformers that can change the output voltage by moving
the tap up or down.
Capacitors: These devices provide reactive power and can be fixed or switched. Switch
capacitors can be turned on to provide reactive power in response to voltage, reactive power
flow, or temperature, or they can have a fixed time-based switching schedule.
Reactors: These devices can be installed in substations to absorb reactive power. They are not
commonly used in distribution substations, but may be used in transmission substations to
compensate for the reactive power of high-voltage transmission lines under light load
conditions.

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1.4 Protection Equipment

Protection equipment in a distribution system is designed to respond to abnormal conditions
such as high current due to faults and high voltage caused by circuit switching or lightning. These
types of equipment include:
Relays: Inverse time overcurrent and instantaneous relays are the most common types of relays
used in distribution systems. They monitor the current on distribution feeders emanating from
the substation and send trip signals to associated circuit breakers to trip if the current exceeds a
certain threshold.
Fuses: High-voltage fuses are sometimes used on the high-voltage side of power transformers to
protect them from faults.
Surge arresters: These devices limit voltage on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge
current created by switching or lightning.
Static wires: These wires, which are located at the top of poles bringing an overhead
transmission line into the substation or an overhead distribution line going out of the substation,
protect substation equipment during lightning storms by diverting lightning surges to the
ground.

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 1.5 Control and Monitoring Devices
Current transformers (CTs) reduce the current flowing on lines to lower values for meters and
relays.
Voltage transformers (VTs) or potential transformers (PTs) reduce high voltage to a lower value
for metering and protection.
Capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs) use the capacitive principle to reduce voltage.
Substations have transducers to measure quantities such as ambient temperature, oil
temperatures of transformers, and dissolved gases in transformer oil.
Modern substations use cyber technology, including computers and communication links (e.g.
microwave, fiber optics, radio) and remote terminal units (RTUs) to collect and convey
information to the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system in the control room.

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2. Primary System Components

The primary distribution system consists of feeders that
extend from the substation to distribution transformers.
Figure on the right shows an example of an overhead
primary distribution feeder along a city street.
These feeders can have different configurations and
conductor types and have associated devices for
protection and control.
This section provides a brief overview of these devices.

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 2.1 Feeders and Laterals
Feeders and laterals in a distribution system can be overhead or underground.
Overhead feeders have bare conductors mounted on poles and can use copper, aluminum, or
aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) conductors.
◦ ACSR conductors are the most commonly used bare wires for overhead distribution feeders.

Underground feeders use insulated cables with copper or aluminum conductors and are
insulated with ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) or cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) polymeric
insulation.
Tree wires are another option for overhead feeders and are made of copper or aluminum
conductors coated with insulation. They are used in areas with dense vegetation and high
likelihood of contact with trees.

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2.2 Switches
Primary feeders in a distribution system are typically three-phase and have different types of
switches installed for operating flexibility.
Manual switches are used to isolate a part of the feeder for maintenance and can only operate
on a de-energized feeder.
Sectionalizing switches or sectionalizers isolate parts of a feeder under fault conditions and do
not have fault-clearing capabilities, but operate in conjunction with reclosers, which do have
fault-clearing capabilities.
◦ Sectionalizers have a counting mechanism to count the number of times the recloser has operated,
and after a predetermined number of operations, they open when the recloser is open to disconnect
the downstream part of the feeder.
◦ Advanced sectionalizing switches with communication capabilities are being deployed in automated
systems to precisely locate faults and isolate the faulted part from the rest of the system.

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 2.2 Switches
Three-phase main feeders also have a switch at the end, called a tie switch, which is normally
open and can be manual or automated.
◦ In modern systems, tie switches are often automated to provide higher flexibility for system
reconfiguration.

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2.3 Compensating Devices

Capacitors: Installed to inject reactive power and maintain proper voltage on feeders under
changing load conditions.
◦ Capacitors can be switched based on local control using time, temperature, voltage, reactive power,
or a combination of them.
◦ Capacitors can also be switched in coordination with other devices in the system.

Voltage regulators: They are like autotransformers and is used on long feeders to boost voltage
under heavy load conditions.

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 2.4 Protection Equipment
Fuses: Most common protection equipment, used on lateral branches and main feeders,
inexpensive but must be manually replaced.
◦ Every lateral branching off the main feeders has a fuse to protect it.
◦ The main feeder can have fuses in certain situations.
◦ They are also used to protect distribution transformers.

Fuses are very inexpensive and have provided reliable protection for over a century.
A disadvantage with them is that they must be manually replaced.
One can argue that they should be replaced by automated protective devices, however, the
cost advantage they offer outweighs any benefits an automated protective device would
provide. Hence, they will continue to be used for protection of downstream portions of
distribution systems.

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2.4 Protection Equipment

Reclosers:
◦ like circuit breakers and have fault-clearing capabilities,
◦ unlike circuit breakers, which depend on separate relays to initiate operation during faults, reclosers
have their own fault-detection mechanism,
◦ are smaller in size and are mounted on top of poles in overhead feeders and are mounted on poles.
◦ have reclosing feature which allows them to reclose a selected number of times before locking out.
◦ Since many faults in distribution systems are temporary, this feature permits fuse saving for such
faults.

Surge arresters: Protects against lightning and switching surges.

Static lines: Protects against voltage transients.

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 2.5 Control and Monitoring Devices
Emerging distribution systems with automation have more control and monitoring devices,
including CTs, VTs, transducers, and RTUs.
Automated distribution systems have an overly communication network for communication
between devices and the control center.
These devices provide real-time data for optimal operating decisions at the control center.

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2.6 Distribution Transformers

Located at the end of the primary distribution system.
Reduce voltage to utilization level for distribution to customers.
Pole-mounted for overhead systems, pad-mounted for underground systems.
Single phase for residential customers, three phase for commercial and industrial customers,
depending on the size of the load.
Single-phase transformer typically feeds 1-8 residential customers through the secondary part
of the system.

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 Types of Primary Systems
Primary distribution systems can be public or private.
Large consumers, such as process industries and universities, often have their own primary
distribution systems connected to the local utility.
Ships use three-phase distribution at 60 Hz, while aircraft and space systems use 400 Hz

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3. Secondary System Components

Connects distribution transformers to service entrance in homes and businesses.
Overhead systems use triplex cable, underground systems use aluminum cable.
Service entrance has a meter to record energy consumption, smart meters allow remote
metering and report loss of power to utilities.
Customers can install their own generation and storage devices, including rooftop solar PV and
batteries for residential customers, and co-generation systems (solar, wind, batteries, fuel
cells) for industrial and commercial customers.

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 North
American
versus
European
Distribution
29
Layouts
T. A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2014.

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North American versus European

Distribution Layouts
• Distribution systems around the world have evolved into different forms. The two main designs are North American and European.

• For both forms, hardware is much the same: conductors, cables, insulators, arresters, regulators, and transformers are very similar. Both
systems are radial, and voltages and power carrying capabilities are similar.

• The main differences are in layouts, configurations, and applications.

• Relative to North American designs, European systems have larger transformers and more customers per transformer. Most European
transformers are three phase and on the order of 300 to 1000 kVA, much larger than the typical North American 25- or 50-kVA single-
phase units.

• Secondary voltages have motivated many of the differences in distribution systems. North America has standardized on a 120/240-V
secondary system; on these, voltage drop constrains how far utilities can run secondaries, typically not more than 250 ft. In European
designs, higher secondary voltages allow secondaries to stretch to almost 1 mi. European secondaries are largely three phase and most
European countries have a standard secondary voltage of 220, 230, or 240 V, twice the North American standard. With twice the
voltage, a circuit feeding the same load can reach 4 times the distance. And, because three-phase secondaries can reach over twice the
length of a single-phase secondary, overall, a European secondary can reach 8 times the length of an American secondary for a given
load and voltage drop.

• In the European design, secondaries are used much like primary laterals in the North American design. In European designs, the primary
is not tapped frequently, and primary-level fuses are not used as much.

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 • There are several types of rate structures
used by the utilities, and some of them
are
 Flat demand rate structure
 Straight-line meter rate structure
Electricity
 Block meter rate structure Rate
 Demand rate structure
 Season rate structure
structure
 Time-of-day (or peak-load pricing)
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structure

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• The flat rate structure provides a constant price per kilowatthour, which does not change
with the time of use, season, or volume.
• The straight-line meter rate structure is similar to the flat structure. It provides a single
price per kilowatthour without considering customer demand costs.
• The block meter rate structure provides lower prices for greater usage, that is, it gives
certain prices per kilowatthour for various kilowatthour blocks where the price per
kilowatthour decreases for succeeding blocks. Theoretically, it does not encourage energy
conservation and off-peak usage. Therefore, it causes a greater than necessary peak and,
consequently, excess idle generation capacity during most of the time, resulting in higher Electricity
Rate
rates to compensate the cost of a greater peak-load capacity.
• The demand rate structure recognizes load factor and consequently provides separate
charges for demand and energy. It gives either a constant price per kilowatthour

structure
consumed or a decreasing price per kilowatthour for succeeding blocks of energy used.
• The seasonal rate structure specifies higher prices per kilowatthour used during the
season of the year in which the system peak occurs (on-peak season) and lower prices
during the season of the year in which the usage is the lowest (off-peak season).
• The time-of-day rate structure (or peak-load pricing) is similar to the seasonal load rate
structure. It specifies higher prices per kilowatthour used during the peak period of the
day and lower prices during the off-peak period of the day.
• The seasonal rate structure and the time-of-day rate structure32 are both designed to
reduce the system's peak load and therefore reduce the system's idle standby capacity.

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 Electricity
Rate
structure
• For example, if the consumption is 2200
kWh 33

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Electricity
Rate
structure
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 Electric meters

• An electromechanical demand meter for large

customers
• A demand meter is basically a watthour meter
with a timing element added. The meter
• Single-phase electromechanical functions as an integrator and adds up the
kilowatthours of energy used in a certain time
watthour meter interval, for example, 15, 30, or 60 min.
Therefore, the demand meter indicates energy
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per time interval, or average power, which is
017773&poi=&campaignid=6469750774&mkgroupid=85991902548&rlsatarget=pla-
474380971144&abcId=1141186&merchantid=114830794&gclid=CjwKCAjwibzsBRAMEiwA1pHZruGB
HN6RBu1Ya4PKrWV-qWmIQMukH8crL8GfHgS_jvnHejlI9n4HahoCZ4UQAvD_BwE
expressed in kilowatts.

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Smart distribution grids

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 Smart distribution grids
 Discretionary load switching • Dispersed storage and generation
 Peak load pricing • Fault detection, control, and isolation
 Load shedding • Load studies
 Cold load pickup • Condition and state monitoring
 Load reconfiguration • Automatic customer meter reading
 Voltage regulation • Remote service connection or disconnection
 Transformer load management (TLM) • Switching operations
 Feeder load management (FLM)
 Capacitor control

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