IGCSE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 0680

TOPIC TWO: AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

AGRICULTURE TYPES

1. SUBSISTENCE- Practiced on small scale, and production is low.

 The farmers cultivate crops enough food to last them and their families
 Production is mainly for family consumption

2. COMMERCIAL- Practiced on large scale, modern technology is used.

 High production of crops,
 Cultivation of crops with the aim of selling them.

3. ARABLE- Production of plants for consumption by humans

4. PASTORAL- Production of animals or animal related products

Ways to increase Agricultural yield

 Crop rotation- growing different types of plants in different plots each year
 Fertilizers-They contain nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus which increases the
rate of growth
 Irrigation- Essential for cell activity
 Pest control- Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless weed
 Mechanization- Larger area can be cultivated
 Controlled environment- Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for
plant to grow
 Selective breeding- Choose parents with desired features and raise offspring from
parents then select the best offspring with the best feature

Advantages of Crop Rotation

 diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

 Pests need to find new site
 The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients
 Crops ready to harvest at different time
Water application methods

 Overhead sprinklers
 Clay pot irrigation system
 Trickle drip system
 Flood irrigation

Advantages and Disadvantages of Overhead sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages
Easy to set up Large droplets may cap the soil

Can cover a large piece of land Small droplets may be blown away by wind

Water lands on leaves which evaporate

quickly.

Clay pot irrigation system

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple technology Large labour costs

Easy to check the amount of water Only suitable for permanent plants

Trickle Drip irrigation system

Advantages Disadvantages

reduces risk of leaching Expensive to install

Correct volume of water Inflexible

supplied
Water placed directly at the Grit can block tubes so filter is needed
base of the plant so only
crop plants receive water

Flood irrigation system

Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive Damage soil structure

Can cover large areas quickly Inefficient use of water

Why weeds must be controlled

• it will compete with crops for light, water and nutrients

• Make cultivation difficult

• Can be source of pests and diseases

• Might be poisonous

Advantages of herbicides

• cheap

• Easy to manage

• Effect is rapid

• Results are predictable

Selective breeding

• choose parents with the desired characteristics

• Allow them to breed and obtain their offspring

• Select the offspring that show the desired characteristics

• Repeat the process

Genetically modified organisms: the DNA is extracted and inserted into another organism

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher yield from lower inputs Reduction in gene pool

Crops can be made resistant to droughts Reduce biodiversity

Less area needed to produce a crop Products are not natural so unknown
impact of the new characteristics on
humans
Crops can be made with longer storage lives

Hydroponics: Growing plants without soil, with the nutrients plant needs dissolved in
water

Advantages Disadvantages
No need for soil Expensive to set up

Easy to harvest Suitable for small production areas

 Can be used anywhere Diseases may spread quickly

Reduce number of pests Technical knowledge required

Water is recycled

Impacts of Agriculture

 Soil erosion
 Overuse of insecticides and herbicides
 Overproduction and waste
 Overuse of fertilisers
 Exhaustion of mineral ion content
 Management of irrigation causing salinization and water logging
 Cash crops replacing food crops

Impact of overuse of herbicides and insecticides

• food web is disturbed and biodiversity is decreased

• Can cause resistance within the pest population increasing number of pests

• Toxic effect on marine life

• Over use of pesticides cause air pollution

• Can remain in the environment for generations

Impacts of overuse of fertilizers

• excess water containing dissolved fertilizers leach into nearby lakes and rivers leading to
eutrophication

• Causes increase of algae growth

• Sunlight is blocked and photosynthesis is reduced

• This causes the algae to die

• Cause increase in bacterial count to decompose dead algae

• Bacteria increase and use oxygen so aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen

Over production and waste

• waste from overproduction

• Waste of storage space

• Waste of transportation
• Waste of labour

Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging

• death of plant roots because water logged soils prevent plant roots from getting enough
oxygen

• Salts are toxic so land becomes unusable and lower crop yield is produced

• damage to soil structure as soil is compacted

• Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and leached with water

• Surface run off increases soil erosion

The Soil- It is a habitat for plants and other organisms that grow within it. It is made up of a
number of components. There are four main groups:

 Mineral particles, which are a combination of rock fragments and other smaller
inorganic (non-living) items
 Organic content, which is a mixture of living plants and animals and their dead
remains
 Air, which is held within the spaces (pores) between the particles and organic
content of the soil.
 Water, which is also held with the soil pores and it is the water that is available for
plants to grow.

The proportions of soil components depend on:

 Type of soil
 Local climate conditions
 Size of the mineral particles

Particle size- The size of the soil particles has a major effect on the properties of soil, how
well it drains or hold water, its capacity to hold mineral nutrients and the ease with which
plants can grow in it and be cultivated.

The Classification of Soil particle types and their characteristics

 Soil/ Particle Type Size of particles Texture Characteristics
Sand 2.0- 0.02mm Feels grity  Large pore
sizes
 Drains well
 Contains
large air
spaces
 Less fertile
 Easier to
cultivat
Silt 0.020- 0.002mm Feels silky or soapy Less friction than
sand
Particles slippery
Clay <0.002mm Sticky when wet  Particles held
together
tightly
 Poor air
spaces or
drainage
 Forms a hard
mass when
dried
 More fertile
 Hard to
cultivate

Soil pH- The uptake of nutrients by plant roots is affected by the pH of the soil, a measure of
the acidity or alkalinity

 The pH scale runs from pH1 (acid) to pH14 (alkaline). It is very rare for a soil to be at
the extremes of this scale, except after major chemical spills or pollution incidents.

Soil Erosion: wearing away of the top soil by the force of water or wind

Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the soil but is instead intercepted by the
leaves and branches of plants

Infiltration: the process by which precipitation water soaks into soil

Surface run off: water from rainfall that flows over the ground

Causes of soil erosion

1. Removal of natural vegetation:

• no interception happens to precipitation

• No more roots to bind soil together

• The infiltration decreases so flash flooding and surface run off pick the soil and carry it
away

2. Over cultivation:

• ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles which are more easily carried
away by wind

3. Over grazing:

• livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level, sometimes leaving no roots to hold
the soil

4. Wind erosion:

• deforestation increases the probability of soil getting eroded by wind

5. Water erosion:

• on a slope, excess run off water that can be absorbed by soil transports the soil from that
area

• Soil compaction reduces infiltration

• Gully erosion forms deeper and deeper cracks

Impacts of soil erosion

1. Loss of habitat

2. Desertification

3. Silting of rivers

4. Displacement of people

5. Malnutrition and famine

Managing soil erosion

1. Terracing

2. Contour ploughing

3. Bunds

4. Windbreak
5. Maintaining vegetation cover

6. Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure

7. Planting trees

8. Mixed cropping

9. Intercropping

10. Crop rotation

Aims of sustainable agriculture

1. Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products

2. Making efficient use of non-renewable resources

3. Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural

processes with farming techniques

How to maintain sustainable agriculture

1. Organic fertilizers

2. Managed grazing

3. Crop rotation

4. Use of pest and drought resistant varieties of crops

5. Trickle drip irrigation

6. Rainwater harvesting

Terracing:

• flat platforms made on hillside, slows surface runoff of water. Thus, slowing soil erosion
down hill

Contour Ploughing:

• plough perpendicular to slope, which slow water runoff. Thus, slowing soil erosion
downhill

wind breaks:

• trees planted in rows, to protect from Soil erosion by wind

Mixed Cropping:
• planting rows of trees acts as windbreaker

• Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that don’t thrive for sunlight

• Provide a natural habitat for animals that feed on pests

• Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the organic matter

Crop Rotation:

• diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

• Pests need to find new site

• The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients

• Crops ready to harvest at different times

TOPIC THREE: WATER AND ITS MANAGEMENT

The Distribution of water on Earth- Although more than 75% of the Earth’s Surface is
covered in water, only 3% of this water is fresh (non-salty) and potentially usable by humans.
Much of this water is locked up in the polar ice caps or glaciers. Less than 1% of the Earth’s
fresh water is readily available for people to use.

Global water Distribution

 97.2%- Oceans and Seas

 0.6 %- Ground water
 2.1%- Snow and ice
 0.1%- Rivers and lakes

The Water Cycle

1. Sun heats earth surface including oceans, rivers and lakes so water is evaporated from
them

2. Plants do transpiration so water evaporates from plant leaves

3. Warm air rise above

4. Condensation happens

5. Precipitation when water vapor cools and droplets get bigger and heavier

Precipitation - moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain or snow
Surface run off - precipitation that flows over the ground surface, eventually finding its way
into stream and rivers

Interception - precipitation that doesn’t reach the earth surface due to being obstructed by
trees

Infiltration - precipitation soaks into sub surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks
and pore spaces

Through flow - infiltrated water flows through soil

Ground water flow - infiltrated water flows through the rock

Why humans need water?

Domestic use

• at home for drinking and cooking

• Washing and flushing toilets

• Washing clothes

• Gardening

Industrial use

• power generation

• Cooling

• Mixing and making products

Agricultural use

• mainly for irrigation

• For domestic animal

The main sources of fresh water for human use

Surface water - water in lakes, rivers and swamps

Ground water - water in soil and rocks under the ground

Portable water - safer to drink

Aquifers - water stored in porous rocks under ground

Desalination plants - removal of salt from seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis

Reservoirs- artificial Lake used as a source of water supply, created behind dam
How water is gained from aquifers

• layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rocks

• Permeable rocks on the surface receive new supplies of rain water

• Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone rocks below the water course

• Mechanical pumps or human labour are used to raise water to the surface

Artesian aquifer

• water that is stored under pressure

• Water from well sunk into artesian aquifer will rise to the surface without the need for a

Pump

Water from the sea- To make the salt water suitable for human consumption, the salt has to
be removed in a process called Desalination

The first method of desalination is Distillation.

1. Distillation- Water is boiled and released as vapor leaving salt behind

• Vapor is condensed as liquid water and can be used

• Require a lot of energy, and the provision of this energy may itself cause pollution.

2. Reverse Osmosis- Involves Pumping salt water at a high pressure through a fine
membrane

• It requires less energy than distillation. Most desalination plants use the technique of
reverse osmosis.

Advantages of desalination

• reduces the risk of water borne diseases

• Provide job opportunity

• Well known technology

• Huge supply as salty water covers 97% of earths water

• It is safe as there are no heavy metals or water pollution

Disadvantages of desalination

• very expensive

• Process needs a lot of energy

• Requires skilled workers

• Greenhouse gas emission happens if fossil fuel is used

• Some marine species are killed in desalination plants

Availability of safe drinking water around the world

 The most important factor when considering a country’s water wealth is the amount
of rain it receives.
 Brazil and Russia are two of the most water wealth nations and UAE and Kuwait are
two of the most water poor.

Water rich countries

• countries with plentiful fresh water supplies

• High precipitation

• Low population so low demand for water

• Countries with big areas are really usually rich as they have plenty of land for rain to fall

Water poor countries

• lack of rain

• Water might be frozen

• High population so high demand on water

• Rocks maybe impermeable so no ground water

• Drought

Unlike rural areas, urban areas have higher access to safe drinking water because:

• cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices

• On average people’s income are higher

• Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities

• Tourists are more likely to visit if clean water is available

• Population density in urban areas is high so water pipes are easier and cheaper to build
when a lot of people live close together

Multipurpose Dam Projects

 The construction of a dam across a river can be a very expensive and controversial
project but the benefits are usually great.
Advantages of Dams

• generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants which is renewable source of energy

and doesn’t produce greenhouse gas

• Flood control

• More job opportunity

• Sustainable irrigation

• Creates land for tourism

Disadvantages of Dams

• relocating people

• Dam may break causing flooding

• Noise, air, visual pollution when being built

• Loss of habitat so loss of biodiversity

• Very expensive to build

The sustainability of Dams

alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no greenhouse gases are produced

• Have negative effect on fish population

• Dam structure may be under a lot of pressure so may deteriorate and eventually fail

• Reservoir can become silted due to material carried into it by rivers

Water Pollution

Domestic waste

• untreated sewage

• sewage carries many pathogenic micro-organisms

• Detergents, metals and manufactured products containing traces of toxic chemicals

Industrial processes

• use of chemicals

• Processing of metal ores

• Gases from factories enter the atmosphere where they dissolve in water forming acid rain

• Leaching of metals from waste heaps and dumps causes the presence of metals in water
course
Agricultural practices

• surpluses of phosphorus and nitrogen

• Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer will be washed from the land into ground water

Impacts of water pollution

• risk of water borne diseases which are caused by drinking contaminated water

• Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers cause death
of fish

• Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication

• Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in food chains will cause increase in concentration of

toxic substance in tissues of organisms causing illness

• Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment

• Formation of acid rain

Formation of acid rain

• when volcanos erupt or fuels burn, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are released

• They are blown long distances and react with water in atmosphere

• SO2 dissolve in water forming sulfuric acid and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in water forming
nitric acid

• Falls in the form of rain having low pH this is called acid rain

Impacts of acid rain

• acidification of water bodies

• Causes damaging of crops

• Causes damaging of buildings

• lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life so

reduce fish population

Strategies for improving water quality

• improve sanitation by separating human wastes from water source and it can be removed
by connection to a system of sewer pipes that collects

human wastes

• Sewage treatment

• Pollution control and legislation

Treatment of sewage

• waste water is taken to sewage treatment plant

• In a screening tank large objects are removed from the waste

• Solid organic matter settles at the bottom of the tank

• water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it

• This encourages the growth of bacteria and microbes that break down organic matter

Chlorination of water

Water-related Diseases

Cholera caused by

• person infected with the bacterium the sewage from this infected person is

leaked into water supply

• Water supply gets contaminated

• People drink this contaminated water so they get infected

Factors that increase the risk of getting infected with cholera

• poor sanitation

• Contamination of water and food

• Disruption of piped water after a natural disaster

Why might the water from rivers and lakes not be safe to drink

• contain toxic wastes or pollutants

• Contain heavy metals

• Contain remains from sewage

• Water borne diseases

Strategies to control cholera

• do not use contaminated water to wash food

• Water should be treated before delivered to homes

• Boiling water and chlorination

• Vaccination to allow human to fight the infection

• Ensure sewage and drinking water are kept separate to ensure safety of potable water

Government strategies that can help people to have access to safe drinking water

• education regarding sanitation

• Improving water quality by improving water sanitation and treatment of sewage

• Fines against water pollution

MALARIA

Life cycle of malaria

• female anopheles’ mosquito that is infected with malaria parasite

• The mosquito bites human

• The human gets infected with malaria that targets liver cells

• Another mosquito bites the infected human

• The second mosquito becomes vector

Why is it difficult to eradicate malaria

• mosquitos have large population and breed rapidly

• Many sources of stagnant water

• High population makes the spreading faster

• Need money to apply control method

Strategies to control malaria

• using antimalarial drugs to kill malaria parasite

• Avoid contact with mosquito by sleeping under mosquito nets

• Wear long sleeves

• Kill mosquito using insecticides

• Use vaccinations and educate people on the risks of malaria

• Draining stagnant areas of water to prevent breeding

Describe how the global distribution of malaria has changed between 1900 and 2000.

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(b)(i) The use of antimalarial drugs is one strategy for controlling malaria.
Describe the benefits and limitations of the use of antimalarial drugs as a strategy for
controlling malaria.

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limitations...................................................................................................................................
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(ii)Name and describe one other strategy for controlling malaria.

Name of strategy...............................................................................................................

Descriptionofstrategy..................................................................................................................
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TOPIC FOUR: OCEANS AND FISHERIES

The resource potential for oceans: (What do we benefit?)
 food as fish
• Wave energy
• Tidal energy
• Tourism
• Potential for safe drinking water
• Transport

Distribution of major ocean currents

Surface currents: movement of the surface water of the sea in constant direction

Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area

• Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anti-clockwise

• Currents in the northern hemisphere are generally clockwise

Distribution of major marine fish populations

1. Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where water is shallow

2. Allowing light and oxygen to penetrate for phytoplankton to produce their own food by
photosynthesis

3. Herbivore fish rely on primary producers like phytoplankton

4. Carnivore eat herbivore fish

5. Food web starts with phytoplankton. Thus, fish are found where there is plentiful
phytoplankton

6. Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which require light, water and
CO2

7. upwelling: areas where minerals at the ocean floor are brought up to the surface by
currents

8. Wind moves surface water away from the coast and cold water from the deep in the
ocean rises up and takes its place and this cold water is rich in nutrients

El Nino ENSO
In El Nino year:

• change in prevailing winds that leads to change in the pattern of currents in the ocean of
south pacific

• warm nutrient poor water comes into the region

• No upwelling of the cold nutrient rich water that supports the fishery

• No nutrients mean phytoplankton doesn’t grow well so less food for the fish

• So, fish migrate or die

Use of Technology in fishing

Advantages Disadvantages
 Huge nets catch large quantities of  Overfishing causing worldwide
Fish decline in fish number
 Ships freeze fish at sea  Loss of biodiversity
 Modern ships are mechanized and  Huge nets catch unwanted fish
stay at sea for longer time
 Sonar locate fish and warn from  Causes unemployment
underground dangers

Management of the harvesting of marine species

1. Net types and mesh size where we use larger mesh size and smaller net size

2. Quotas were governments set limits on how many and what type of fish can

be caught

3. Closed seasons where government can pass laws that can close fisheries

down for part of the year

4. Protected areas and reserves by preventing fishing in certain areas

5. Conservation laws

6. International agreements

Effectiveness of these strategies

1. Accurate reporting of bycatch

2. Fishing in breeding seasons

3. Quotas can be avoided by simply not declaring the number of fish being caught

4. Using of illegal large nets

5. Monitoring organizations based in ports have more success

Overfishing: When the number of fish that is caught is greater than the rate at which the
fish reproduce leading to a fall in fish numbers in an area

Causes of over fishing of marine fish species

• demand for fish as food due to increasing world population

• creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area often half of which is discarded
as bycatch

• Finding fish easily by using sonar

• Much bigger boats which can work a long way

act of overfishing

• decline in fish stocks that causes reduction in marine biodiversity

• Death of bycatch that causes disturbance in food chain

Advantages of fish farming

• fish easier to catch and growth of fish is more controlled

• Production is constant and less predation

• Controlled breeding feeding and harvesting

• provides employment and ability to meet increase in demand

• Health of fish is managed so less risk to human life

Problems with fish farming

• increase risk of disease

• Use of antibiotics is required

• Water pollution from increased antibiotics and fertilizers

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

New Zealand has several important marine fisheries.
It is estimated that 95% of all marine species harvested in New Zealand are from sustainable
fisheries.

1. (a)(i) Describe what is meant by the term, sustainable fisheries.

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(ii)Explain the importance of sustainable fisheries for humans.

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2. Toothfish are harvested in the Southern Ocean off New Zealand.

The graph shows the harvest of toothfish over a 13-year period.

(i) Describe the trends in the harvest of toothfish.

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(ii)Calculate the percentage increase in catch between year 1 and year 5.

Give your answer as a whole number.

percentage increase =.........................................................[3]

Toothfish are large predatory fish that live in very deep water. They grow slowly and are 10
years old before they can reproduce.

(i) Explain two reasons why toothfish are not suitable for fish farming.

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(ii)Suggest how fish farming can impact marine ecosystems.

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Using different net types and mesh sizes are strategies for reducing the impact
of overfishing.
State three other strategies to reduce overfishing.
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Some plastic waste is washed into the ocean from landfill sites.
State three ways in which plastic waste pollution has an impact in the
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TOPIC FIVE: ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Energy sources:

Renewable Non- Renewable

 Bio fuels, hydroelectric powers, tidal  fossil fuels formed over millions of
power, years ago from the decay of living
 geothermal power, solar and wind matter
power  coal, oil, gas

Why the demand of energy is increasing worldwide?

 Increasing population size

 Increase in wealth
 Improvements in standards of living
 Increasing industrialization

Formation of coal

The vegetation of the forests dies.

Plant decay forming a layer named peat

Peat is pressurized between sediments with high pressure and temperature to form coal.

Formation of Oil and Gas

Millions of years ago plants and animal died and fell to the bottom of the ocean

Their remains are covered with sediments

The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.

How fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas) produce electricity?

 They produce massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to heat
water and convert it to steam
 Steam drives the turbine that turns the generator to convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy

How nuclear power produce electricity?

 Uranium releases huge amount of energy when nuclear fission occurs

  Water is pumped into reactor
 Energy from uranium is used to heat water to produce steam
 Steam turns the turbine and the turbine turns the generator which generates
electricity.

Advantages of Fossil Fuels (coal, oil, gas)

 Plentiful supply
 Provide job opportunity
 Coal is the cheapest source of fossil fuel
 Coal is easy to store

Disadvantages

 Non renewable
 Damage local area
 Risk of oil spills
 Carbon dioxide emission is polluting to the atmosphere

Advantages of Nuclear

 No CO2 produced so no global warming

 Provide job opportunity
 Small volume of waste

Disadvantages

 Risk of radiation leakage

 Visual pollution
 Expensive and technically difficult to build

How hydroelectric power produces electricity?

 Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir

 Water released from the reservoir that flows through the turbine rotating it
Turbine activates the generator that generates electricity

Advantages of Hydroelectric power

 Renewable
 Provide more job opportunity

Disadvantages

 Dams might relocate local people

 Expensive to install
 Dams effect natural flow of water
How solar power produces electricity?

 Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to light
 A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of electricity

Advantages of Solar Power

 Renewable
 No CO2 produced
 No fuel cost

Disadvantages

 Solar cells are expensive

 Energy only produced in day light
 Not reliable in some places

How geothermal power produces electricity

 Cold water is pumped underground into layer of hot rocks

 Rocks heat the water
 Water converted into steam and steam is piped to the geothermal power station
 Steam moves the turbine which turns the generator to generate electricity

Advantages of Geothermal power

 No CO2 produced
 Renewable

Disadvantages

 Only certain areas have suitable conditions

 Expensive to install and need high level of technology

Why do some countries refuse to invest in renewable source of energy?

 Expensive due to prices of new power plants

 Less energy yielded from renewable resources
 Some countries are rich in fossil fuels
 Some countries don’t think pollution issue is priority

Why does the world rely on oil as a form of energy?

o it is easier to store and transport

o Extraction from the ground is easier than solids such as coal
o It can be processed into many products
o It is less polluting when burnt compared to coal

Describe and explain ways in which governments can conserve fossil fuels
  Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars
 Taxation on fuels
 Use renewable biofuels instead of fossil fuels
 Scrapping older inefficient car that emit more pollutants

Strategies for efficient management of energy resources

FRACKING

 Is obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open using water, sand and
chemicals
 A vertical hole is drilled to reach the shale rocks
 Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down under high pressure into the shale rock
layer
 This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural gas which are forced back to
surface and collected

Advantages

• access to more oil and gas

• Provide job opportunity

•Less pollution than burning coal

Disadvantages

• land and air pollution

• uses lots of water so it may cause water scarcity

• Toxic chemical from fracking might enter the water sources

What are the main causes of marine oil spills?

• leakage from the rigs

• Leaks in the oil pipework

• Risk of collision or damage to oil tanks during shipping

Management of oil pollution

Reducing oil spills in marine environment:

 increased use of GPS and development of more clearly defined shipping routes to
reduce risk of collision
 Use of double hulled oil tanks can reduce oil spills, if one of the compartments
damaged, the contents of the whole ship are still secure by the inner plate
 MARPOL where all tankers must be certified to show they have appropriate system in
use

Minimizing the impact of oil spills:

 use of floating booms which are floating barriers that are used to trap oil slick
preventing it from spreading
 Detergent sprays help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets that eventually
degrade and disperse
 Skimmers remove oil from seawater surface which is then scrapped of into a
container

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

The bar chart shows the number of oil spills at sea between 1970 and 2020.

(a)(i) State the year with the highest number of oil spills greater than 700
tonnes.

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..... [1]

(ii) Describe the trends shown by the bar chart.

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(b) (i) Describe the impact of oil pollution on coastal ecosystems.

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(ii) The diagram shows a boom being used to reduce the impact of an oil
spill.

Discuss the effectiveness of using a boom as a strategy for reducing the impact
of oil spills at sea.
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(b)The diagram shows the process of fracking.

(i) Describe the process of fracking as a means of extracting oil.

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(ii) Suggest why some people are concerned about fracking.
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TOPIC SIX: NATURAL HAZARDS

When is a natural hazard considered a disaster?

• If it kills a minimum of 10 people
• If it harms 100 people
• If the government declares a state of emergency
• When the government asks for international assistance

Types of Crust on Earth

1- The oceanic crust (sial)
 Made of basalt
 Thin
 Very dense
 Can sink

2- Continental crust
 Made of granite
 Thick
 Light weight
 Old
 Cannot sink and cannot be destroyed
Factors that affect the strength of a disaster?
 Length of time people exposed to it
 Area where people live in. For example, people living in poor
 housing areas are more likely to be affected
 The ability of people to cope with it

Plate Tectonics: theory that outer shell of earth is divided into plates that glide
over the mantle.
• Magma moves under the plates due to convection currents, and this what
makes the plates move as well.
• Plates can move away from each other or towards each other. They meet in
a Plate boundary

Types of Plate Boundary

1- Constructive Plate Boundary: when there are two plates moving
apart from each other. They are called constructive plates because when they
move apart, magma rises up in the gap- this forms volcanoes and eventually
new crust.
2- Destructive Plate Boundary: sometimes called a convergent.
This occurs when oceanic and continental plates move together. The oceanic
plate is forced under the lighter continental plate. Friction causes melting of
the oceanic plate and may trigger earthquakes. Magma rises up through cracks
and erupts onto the surface through composite volcanos.
3- Collision Zone Plate Boundary: when two continental plates
collide.
Neither plate is forced under the other, and so both are forced up and form
fold mountains.
4- Conservative plate boundary: plates slide past each other in
opposite
directions. Friction takes place and the plates slip past in a sudden movement
causing earthquakes.
Geological hazards: EARTHQUAKES
Characteristics of Earthquakes
➢ The focus is where it begins underground
➢ Epicentre is the point right above the focus on the surface of the ground
➢ It may cause liquefaction: conversion of soil into a fluidlike mass
➢ Measured in Richter scale using a seismometer

Factors that affect Death caused by earthquakes

➢ Magnitude of the earthquake
➢ The closer to the epicentre the more damage will be caused
➢ The time of the earthquake. If it occurs in winter or at night there will be
more deaths
➢ Geology of the area because it may lead to liquefaction
➢ Relief of the area. Areas with mountains may face landslides. Areas with
ocean may face Tsunamis
➢ Severity of aftershocks
➢ The population. The higher the population, the more deaths will take place
➢ Buildings strengths. People living in poor housing are likely to face
Deaths

Volcanic Eruptions
Characteristics of volcanoes
➢ Intrusive: Magma cools down and forms igneous rocks
➢ Extrusive: Magma comes out as lava. Also, Pyroclastic material may come
out as well. These include ash, hot gases and volcanic bombs.
➢ Sometimes the lava mixes with water in an area or melting ice and forms
lahars which are very dangerous and can be faster than humans
Types of Extrusive volcanoes

Shield volcanoes
➢ Found on constructive plate
➢ boundaries
➢ Magma has low viscosity
➢ Eruptions are non-explosive

Composite volcanoes
➢ Found on a destructive plate boundary
➢ Looks like a cone
➢ Magma is viscous
➢ Eruptions are explosive but not frequent

Impacts of Geological hazards (Earthquakes and

Volcanoes)
➢ Lava, lahar and ash flows
➢ Landslides causing damage to buildings
➢ Tsunamis
➢ Destruction to farmlands leading to starvation
➢ Water can be contaminated due to broken sewage pipes
➢ leading to water related diseases
➢ Trauma
➢ Loss of habitats

Climatic hazards
Cyclones
Conditions that cause a cyclone
➢ The ocean surface temperature must be at least 27 degrees C
➢ The ocean must be at least 60m deep
➢ Enough Coriolis Force is required
➢ Change in wind speed or direction

Direction of cyclones
➢ They move in anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere
➢ They move in a clockwise direction in Southern hemisphere
What happens to weather when a cyclone passes by an
area?
➢ Air pressure falls
➢ Cumulonimbus clouds are formed causing very heavy rain
➢ Wind speed increases
➢ In the eye, winds are light, sky is clear, temperature is warm and there is
little rain

Impacts of tropical cyclones

➢ Damage to buildings due to strong winds
➢ Heavy rainfall leading to floods, especially in low lying coastal areas
➢ Interruption in electricity and transport
➢ Spread of water borne diseases
➢ Damage to crops leading to food shortage
➢ Loss of wildlife

Floods
Causes
Natural Causes/ Physical Causes
➢ When the river reaches its maximum infiltration capacity to hold water, due
to very heavy rainfall
➢ Soil and Rock type: impermeable rocks will have low infiltration capacity
➢ Earthquakes can cause tsunamis that cause floods
➢ Relief: Steep lands will not give water the chance to infiltrate
➢ Antecedent soil moisture. If the soil was already moist before the rainfall, it
will be more saturated and reduces infiltration capacity

Human Causes
 Deforestation: cutting trees prevents interception so all rainfall falls on
trees
 Agriculture: Overgrazing makes soil compact and unable to hold water.
Removal of natural vegetation to grow crops makes the soil exposed to
heavy rainfall for some time and prevents interception
 Urbanization: concrete and impermeable surfaces like roads cannot
absorb water
 Climatic changes: Global warming caused by human activity led to rise in
sea levels due to melting of glaciers in some areas as well as heavy
rainfall and storms
Impacts of Floods
➢ Migration
➢ Contamination of water leading to water related
➢ diseases
➢ Loss of crops leading to food shortage
➢ Accumulation of silt in rivers due to flood water

Droughts
Natural Causes
➢ Changes in atmospheric circulation at the equator.
➢ Higher temperature due to direct sun rays and trade winds from Northern
and Southern hemispheres lead to droughts
➢ Sinking air in some high-pressure area is warmer. This warm air will make all
water droplets evaporate and skies will have no clouds and eventually no
rain. This leads to sunny and dry weather with dry winds
➢ El Nino Southern Oscillations

Human Causes
➢ Deforestation: cutting trees leads to less infiltration
➢ Building dams reduce the flow of water and cause droughts downstream
➢ Overcultivation and overgrazing make soil compact and unable to hold
water so it evaporates quickly

Strategies to Manage Natural Hazards

Earthquakes
Prediction
➢ Use instruments like seismometer to measure shaking of earth
➢ Detect the location of epicentre and record the pattern of old earthquakes
➢ Detect unusual animal behaviour
Preparation and Protection
➢ Build aseismic buildings
➢ Smart meters to cut off gas supplies to prevent fire
➢ Schools and hospitals must be built in low-risk areas

Volcanoes
Prediction
➢ Use seismometers to monitor shaking caused by rising magma
➢ Tiltmeters to monitor the change in shape of the volcano
➢ Monitor the emission of steam and gas from the volcano
➢ Satellites can be used to detect increasing ground temperature
Preparation and Protection
➢ Study past eruptions and create a hazard map
➢ Build lava diversion channels
➢ Have buildings with sloping roofs to protect against ashfall

Tropical Cyclones
Prediction
➢ Track the cyclone using satellites
Preparation and Protection
Build cyclone shelters for people
➢ Have buildings on stilts so they don't get flooded by
➢ storm surge
➢ Grow mangrove swamps to absorb energy of the storm and slow down the
cyclone

Floods
Prediction
➢ Monitor rainfall and river discharge
Preparation and Protection
➢ . Use hard engineering such as building a flood barrier
➢ Use soft engineering: such as afforestation (growing trees and plants as a
barrier)
➢ Widening and deepening the river by dredging and clearing vegetation to
increase its water holding capacity
➢ Use sandbags
➢ Adapt houses for example by making sockets high above ground level

Droughts
Prediction
➢ Monitor precipitation and temperature
Preparation and Protection
➢ Increase water supplies by having reservoirs and use aquifers
➢ Growing drought tolerant crops
➢ Fencing to control overgrazing
➢ Governments saving food, water and medicine

Why do people continue to live in areas with natural hazards?

➢ They might have lived there all their life so cannot easily leave the place or
have nowhere else to go
➢ Confident about prediction, preparation and protection
➢ Cannot leave their jobs such as tourism or fishing
➢ Soil surrounding volcanoes are more fertile. There is also impressive
scenery that attracts tourists.
➢ Geothermal energy around volcanoes

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

 (c) Explain why the extinction of fish species will affect biodiversity of oceans.

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(c) (i) Describe strategies that governments can use to make fishing
sustainable.

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(ii) Explain why international cooperation is needed to maintain fish stocks.

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(a)Describe the cause of an earthquake.

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Describe three ways that the design of the building reduces the impacts of an
earthquake.

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3 .............................................................................................................................
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 (i) State the scale used to measure the magnitude of the earthquakes.

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..... [1]
(ii) State which country experienced the most earthquakes during this 14-
day period.

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..... [1]
(iii) Calculate the total number of people displaced during this 14-day
period.

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(iv) Some earthquakes with a large magnitude do not cause any deaths or
injuries.
One reason for this could be earthquake-resistant buildings.

Suggest other reasons.

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(v) Suggest why people continue to live in places which are at high risk of
earthquakes.

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TOPIC SEVEN: POPULATION

For the population growth of any organism, there are three phases it passes through:
1- The lag phase: when the organism becomes used to the
new environment.
2- The exponential phase, also known as the log phase:
when population rises rapidly because all requirements are abundant.
3- The stationary phase: when population is in equilibrium
and reached the carrying capacity of the environment.
4- The environment has a carrying capacity, which is the maximum size of a
population that an environment can support in terms of food, water, and other resources,
without damage.
Birth rate is the number of live births over time.
Death rate is the total number of deaths over time.
• If birth rate is greater than death rate, population grows
• If birth rate is less than death rate, population falls
Factors Affecting Birth Rate:
1- Lack of education makes people unaware of birth control methods (contraception)
2- Lack of education makes women marry early and have more children 3- Families have more
children to financially support the family (child labour)
4- In LEDCs it is less costly to have children so they have high birth rate. While in MEDCs it is more
costly to have children
5- High infant mortality and poor health care services in LEDC makes families give birth to more
children.
The movement of people from one area to another is known as migration
Moving from Rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (cities) is known as urbanization.

Why do people migrate?

Due to pull factors and push factors Pull factors:
- Good standards of living
- Well paid jobs
- Good health care services
- Good quality education
- Better water supplies
- Good roads and infrastructure Push factors:
- Unemployment
- Poverty
- Natural disasters like droughts, floods, etc
- Desertification
- Poor services The Population Pyramid
• The young and the old are dependent (they do not work and are not economically
active therefore rely on those who are working for their needs)
The middle aged are independent (economically active) and working

How to control birth rate (ANTI-NATALIST policies):

1- Educate girls so they focus on future career and avoid early marriage
2- Educate people and increase awareness about birth control methods and dangers of high
population growth
3- Provide contraception (birth control) 4- Prevent child labor
5- Use government policies such as the One Child Policy, high taxes, etc

How to increase birth rate (PRONATALIST POLICIES)

1- Give subsidies to families
2- Provide free education and health care to children
3- Education and awareness about the importance of having children to the economy

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

State what each of the following features indicate about the population of this
less economically developed country (LEDC).
narrow top

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wide
base ........................................................................................................................
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percentage of females compared to males in the 75+ age

group ............................................

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(c) The aim of the United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) is:
• to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe and every
young
person’s potential is fulfilled
.
(i) Suggest how the UNPF can ensure every pregnancy is wanted.

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(ii) Governments around the world donate money to support the UNPF.
In 2020, the UK pledged $213 million to the UNPF. In April 2021, the UK
government announced it was reducing this to $32 million.

Suggest one impact of this change.

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..... [1]
TOPIC EIGHT: ATMOSPHERE AND HUMAN ACTIVITY

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

TROPOSPHERE
 Temperature decreases as height increases as conduction and convection form the
earth decreases
STRATOSPHERE
 Temperature increases slightly with height which is called temperature Inversion.
 It also contains the ozone layer (Absorb most of the UV Radiation)
MESOSPHERE
 Temperature falls rapidly as there is no water vapor or ozone to absorb short wave
radiation
THERMOSPHERE
 Temperature rises rapidly because of the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by
atomic oxygen
(d) A government introduces a national policy to limit vehicle emissions.
Suggest reasons why this policy is not enough to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect.

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Natural greenhouse effect

 The earth receives short wave radiation from the sun
 Half of the radiation absorbed by the earth surface
 20% absorbed by the atmosphere
 30% is reflected by clouds and earth surface back into space
 As the earth surface warms, outgoing long radiation is emitted back into the surface
 Green-house gases absorb some of this radiation and deflect it back to earth
 The greater the concentration of greenhouse gases the more effectively they return
radiation to earth

Green-house gases
 Natural- Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone
Artificial- chlorofluorocarbons

CAUSES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

SMOG- The atmospheric pollutants are released in the air when fuels get burned.
These gases react with sunlight and its heat to form smog
With the help of high pressure, lack of air flow and temperature inversion layer smog is
formed

ACID RAIN-Burning of fossil fuels release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
When these gases mix and react with water vapor in the atmosphere, they form weak nitric
and sulphuric acids. They are carried by the wind and fall to earth as acid rain.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION- A weather condition where the air temperature increases with
altitude. During the day surface is heated, on calm nights earth surface cools quickly and
hold cold air near the ground. Cold air is denser so unable to rise. Steep sided valleys
increase the strength of inversion layer
The layer is the inversion layer which traps pollutants increasing formation of fog thus
increasing smog.
OZONE DEPLETION- When CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) reach the stratosphere the ultraviolet
radiation breaks them down releasing chlorine. Chlorine reacts with ozone, breaking down
the ozone molecule to chlorine monoxide and oxygen depleting the layer and forming a
hole.

Impact of atmospheric pollution

Smog
 Breathing difficulties
 Reduced photosynthesis
 Respiratory diseases
 Irritation of eyes
Acid rain
 Acidification of ground water
 Damage to buildings
 Fish dies
 Disruption of food webs
Ozone depletion
 Sun burn
 Increased rates of skin cancer
 Increased mutation
 Damage to vegetation
Enhanced global effect
 Melting ice sheets
 Loss of biodiversity
 Rise in sea levels
 Migration of people from areas where there is flood

Enhanced greenhouse effect

 Created by addition of green-house gases to the atmosphere through human
activities
 Short wave radiation from the sun reaches the earth surface
 Heat is reflected from earth back to space
 Some heat is trapped by green-house gases. The more greenhouse gases the more
heat trapped. This warms up the earth causing global warming.

How human activities increases the greenhouse gases?

Carbon dioxide - burning fossil fuels and deforestation
Methane - mining, deforestation, burning of permafrost
CFCs - aerosol sprays, air conditioning, fire extinguishers
Nitrogen oxides - vehicle exhaust, chemical fertilizers
Tropospheric - chemical reaction involving nitrogen dioxide

Ways of reducing carbon dioxide emissions

 Walking or cycling
 Having laws controlling factory emissions
 International agreements
 Recycling wastes
  Renewable resources

Reasons for difficulty of reducing air pollution

 The technology that reduces air pollution is expensive
 Abundance of fossil fuels
 May impact the economy
 Not popular with the public

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

(a) Describe the effects of drought on the area shown in the photograph.

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(b) State three impacts of drought on local people.

1 ................................................................................................................................................

2 ................................................................................................................................................

3 .............................................................................................................................................(3)
(i) Use the diagram to describe how the features shown may lead to the formation of smog.

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(ii) State the names of two pollutants that form smog.

1 ........................................................................................................................................

2 .....................................................................................................................................[2]
(b) Describe transport policies that governments can use to reduce atmospheric pollution in
cities.
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[3]
(ii) Suggest why there has been a rapid increase in the worldwide use of electric vehicles.

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TOPIC NINE: NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES

 Ecosystem: All the living things together with all non-living things in an
area
 Population: All the organisms of one species living in a defined area at
the same time
 Community: A group of populations of different species that live
together in an area and interact with each other
 Habitat: The place within the ecosystem where an organism lives
 Niche: The role of a species within the ecosystem and includes the type
of food it eats, where it lives and where it reproduces and its
relationships with other species.

Biotic
1. Producers
2. Primary consumers
3. Secondary consumers
4. Tertiary consumers
5. Decomposers
Abiotic
1. Temperature
2. Humidity
3. Water
4. Oxygen
5. Salinity
6. light
7. pH

Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma for it to fuse with
the ovule to fertilize it.
1. Pollen grains are either blown by wind or carried by insects
2. The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower and sends out a tube
that grows down to the ovule
3. Ovule is then fertilized to form an embryo in a seed or fruit that grows into a
plant
Photosynthesis
Energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy using chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen
Importance of chlorophyll
• trap light energy
• Converts light energy into chemical energy
Food chain: A diagram showing the relationship between a single producer,
primary, secondary and Tertiary
Food web: A diagram showing relationship between all of the producers,
primary, secondary and tertiary consumers in ecosystem
Trophic Level: A feeding level within a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers: A diagram that represents the number of organisms at
each trophic level in an ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is
proportional to the numbers at that level
Respiration: Process by which living organisms break down glucose in presence
of oxygen to release CO2, water and energy to carry out process of life such as
movement
Energy is lost by:
1. Movement
2. Used for cellular respiration
3. Used for reproduction
4. Lost as faeces

Carbon cycle
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis
2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bio
accumulated into their bodies
3. These animals and plants eventually die and upon decomposing carbon is
released back into the atmosphere
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into atmosphere becomes fossil
fuels
5. These fossil fuels then used for man-made activities which pumps more
carbon back into atmosphere

Importance of wet lands

1. The photosynthesis absorbs CO2 and impacts climate change
2. They absorb water so reduce flooding
3. Provide habitats so increase biodiversity
4. Maintenance of water quality
5. Shoreline protection from erosion
6. Provide employment
7. Recharging of aquifers
Causes of habitat loss
 Deforestation
 intensive agricultural practices
 drainage of wetlands
Impacts of habitat loss
 Loss of biodiversity
 Extinction
 Genetic depletion
Causes of deforestation
 Land cleared for farming, food production and
 livestock due to human population extension
 Roads and settlements
 Rock and mineral extraction
Impacts of deforestation
 Habitat loss
 Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion
 Soil erosion and desertification
 Climate change
 Disruption of food webs

Measuring and managing biodiversity

Pitfall traps:
• used to sample moving organisms
• Consists of a jar buried in the soil
• Organisms fall into the trap and smooth sides prevent them from escaping
• The jar may or may not be covered
• Traps should be inspected and emptied regularly
Pooter:
• used to sample moving organisms like insects
• Glass mouthpiece suck air through pooter, then insect gets sucked in other
tube
• Gauze prevents insects entering mouth so insects get trapped in pot
Transects:
• use a grid map of an area
• Select a starting point
• Count all organisms along the transect or at regular intervals using quadrats
• Record the results in a table
• Repeat the transect in different positions in the same field
• Calculate average number of organisms for the whole field
Quadrat:
• observe the quadrat from a distance for a fixed period of time
• Count the number of plants of the species or area covered by the plants
• Repeat sampling in different positions and take average
• Record results in a table

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Pit fall traps  Inexpensive  Often kill
 Easy to set up organisms
captured
 May over sample
or under sample
Quadrats  Quick • not always very
 Inexpensive accurate
 inadequate • Sample may be
biased if not
enough quadrats
are placed
Transect • Quick • Not applicable in
• Inexpensive all situations
• Portable

Sampling techniques
Random sampling
A sampling method in which the sampling device is placed using random
number, generator or the roll of dice.
It is used when two areas are to be compared

Systematic sampling
A sample method in which the sampling device is
placed along a line
Used to check how the species change along a gradient in the environment
Strategies for conserving biodiversity of natural ecosystem
• Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species
• Sustainable forestry by using selective logging which is the removal of
mature trees only of species that are valuable
• Agroforestry a system in which crops are grown around trees
• Wildlife corridor
• Extractive reserves
• National parks
• Seed banks
• Wildlife and ecological reserves

Advantages of selective logging

• Selective logging causes less damage to forest than excessive logging
• Provides job opportunities
• Extraction is sustainable
• Non valued trees still provide habitat for many species and immature
valued trees can be used years later

Advantages of national parks

• Laws that ban activities such as hunting
• An entry fee charged is used for conservation work
• Provides jobs and attracts tourists so increase income
• Guidebook is provided that includes information on the importance of
the conservation of wild nature

Why is it difficult to make ecological reserves

• Difficult to accurately outline the area or restrict access to it
• Area may be in the territory of more than one country so all countries
need to agree
• Reduce the income of local people
• Reduce tourism

Role of Zoos and captive breeding

• captive breeding programs maintains biodiversity and increase species
numbers thus reducing risk of extinction
• Aim to release captive breed animals into the wild when habitats have
been restored
 Advantages Disadvantages
• provide better diet to animal difficult to breed animals
• provide continuous supply of food • Lack of genetic variation
to animal • Ethically wrong
• Provide access to medical care • Cannot always provide natural
• provide education and awareness habitats

Ways to reduce inbreeding:

• organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner
• A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved through IVF and inter zoo swapping
of individuals
• Use a database to record breeding history of individuals in captivity

Environmental impacts of large number of tourists

 More domestic waste
 More traffic
 More buildings
 Increase in demand for water food and electricity
 Damage to tourist attractions

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTIONS

Define the terms:
habitat ...................................................................................................................
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niche. .....................................................................................................................
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Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are known as ozone-depleting substances because they destroy

ozone in the atmosphere. The table shows the emissions of ozone-depleting substances
from 1980 to 2015.
(b) Explain how CFCs destroy ozone.
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(c) Describe the benefits and limitations of strategies to reduce the impact of CFCs.
benefits ......................................................................................................................................
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(b) State the green pigment found in leaves.

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(c) Humans take in oxygen.
State the process that uses oxygen in living cells.

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(d) State why trees are a carbon sink.

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A reforestation programme began in 2000 when the corridor was created.
Local people were employed to plant trees. Local people have seen an increase in tigers in
the corridor. There has also been an increase in the tiger population in both reserves.
(i) Explain the benefits to tigers of connecting the two ecological reserves by a corridor.
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(ii) Ecotourists visit the reserves to see the tigers. The ecotourists stay in houses in villages
in the corridor.
Suggest reasons why this type of ecotourism is a sustainable activity.
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