UGC NET Paper 1

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Master Notes for Exam Preparation

All Tiers · All Topics · Maximum Coverage

Table of Contents
Unit 1 International Environmental Agreements & Conventions

Unit 2 Biodiversity & Conservation

Unit 3 Air Pollution

Unit 4 Water Pollution

Unit 5 Climate Change & Global Warming

Unit 6 Ozone Layer Depletion

Unit 7 Environmental Health & Pollution Diseases

Unit 8 Renewable Energy

Unit 9 Solid & Hazardous Waste Management

Unit 10 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Unit 11 Sustainable Development & SDGs

Unit 12 Ecology Fundamentals

Unit 13 Ecosystems

Unit 14 Natural Disasters

Unit 15 Key Environmental Terminologies

 UNIT 1 · International Environmental Agreements & Conventions
International environmental law is one of the highest-probability areas in UGC NET Paper 1 EVS. The examiner
repeatedly tests the year, host city, outcome document, and specific focus of each agreement. Memorise each
entry as a cluster: Name → Year → City/Body → Outcome → Focus keyword.

1.1 Stockholm Conference (1972) — The Founding Moment

Full name: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
Year & City: June 1972, Stockholm, Sweden
Outcome: Stockholm Declaration (26 Principles) + Action Plan for the Human Environment
Birth of UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme established as a result.
Key principles:
• Principle 1 — Man has a fundamental right to freedom, equality, and adequate conditions of life in an
environment of quality.
• Principle 21 — States have sovereign right to exploit their own resources; responsibility not to damage
other states' environments.
• Introduced the concept of Ecodevelopment — balancing development with ecology.
• Slogan: Only One Earth

1.2 Rio Earth Summit (1992) — The Green Turning Point

Full name: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
Year & City: June 1992, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Five Major Outcomes:

Document/Convention Focus

Rio Declaration 27 principles of sustainable development

Agenda 21 Blueprint for sustainable development in 21st century

UNFCCC Climate change framework

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

Forest Principles Non-legally binding statement on forests

Key concepts introduced: Precautionary Principle, Polluter Pays Principle, Common But Differentiated
Responsibilities (CBDR).

1.3 Johannesburg Summit (2002) — Rio+10

Full name: World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
Year & City: 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa (Rio+10)
Reaffirmed Agenda 21 and added new commitments on water, energy, health, agriculture, and biodiversity
(WEHAB framework).

1.4 Rio+20 (2012) — The Future We Want

Full name: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
Year & City: June 2012, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 Outcome document: 'The Future We Want' — agreed to develop SDGs (launched 2015).

1.5 Climate Change Agreements

Agreement Year Key Provision

UNFCCC 1992 (in force 1994) Framework — stabilise GHG concentrations

Kyoto Protocol 1997 (in force 2005) Legally binding emission cuts for Annex I countries; CDM, JI,
ET mechanisms

Doha Amendment 2012 Extended Kyoto Protocol to 2020

Paris Agreement 2015 (in force 2016) Keep warming below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C; NDCs; $100B/yr
climate finance

Glasgow COP26 2021 Phase-down of coal; Article 6 rules; 1.5°C reaffirmed

Sharm el-Sheikh COP27 2022 Loss & Damage fund established

Dubai COP28 2023 First Global Stocktake; transition away from fossil fuels

Kyoto Mechanisms (must know):

• CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) — Annex I countries fund emission-reduction projects in
non-Annex I (developing) countries.
• JI (Joint Implementation) — Annex I to Annex I project-based credits.
• ET (Emissions Trading) — Cap-and-trade among Annex I countries.

1.6 Biodiversity Conventions

Convention/Protocol Year Focus

CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) 1992, Rio Conservation + sustainable use + access &
benefit sharing (ABS)

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000 Safe transfer of LMOs (Living Modified

Organisms/GMOs)

Nagoya Protocol 2010 ABS — fair sharing of genetic resource benefits

Kunming-Montreal GBF 2022 30x30 target — protect 30% land & ocean by
2030

Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010–2020): 20 targets under 5 strategic goals — habitat loss halved, overfishing
stopped, pollution reduced, climate change addressed, benefit sharing.

1.7 Ozone Layer Agreements

Year Provision

1985 Framework for ozone layer protection; research co

1987 (in force 1989) Phase-out of ODS (CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, Carbon

1990 Accelerated phase-out schedule

ment 1992 Added HCFCs to schedule

2016 (in force 2019) Phase-down of HFCs (greenhouse gases) under M

1.8 Wetland, Wildlife & Forest Conventions

 Convention Year City/Country Focus

Ramsar Convention 1971 Ramsar, Iran Conservation of wetlands of international

importance

CITES 1973 Washington DC Control trade in endangered species

CMS (Bonn Convention) 1979 Bonn, Germany Conservation of migratory species

ITPGRFA 2001 Rome, FAO Plant genetic resources for food & agriculture

Ramsar key fact: Sites designated as 'Wetlands of International Importance'. India has 75+ Ramsar sites (as of
2023). Montreux Record — Ramsar sites in danger.

1.9 Chemicals & Waste Conventions

Year Focus

1989 Control transboundary movement of hazardous wa

n 1998 Prior Informed Consent (PIC) for hazardous chemi

n 2001 Eliminate/reduce POPs (Persistent Organic Polluta

n 2013 Reduce mercury pollution globally

POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) — the 'Dirty Dozen': Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, DDT,
Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, Toxaphene, PCBs, Dioxins, Furans.

1.10 Desertification & Other Key Agreements

Year Focus

1994 Combat desertification — land degradation neutral

1982 Law of the Sea — EEZ, deep sea mining, marine e

1972 Prevent marine pollution by dumping of wastes

1973/78 Prevent ship-based marine pollution

1991 EIA in transboundary context

 UNIT 2 · Biodiversity & Conservation

2.1 Levels of Biodiversity

Definition Example

Variation in genes within a species Different rice varieties (basmati, IR8)

Variety of species in an area Number of bird species in a forest

Variety of ecosystems in a region Forests, grasslands, wetlands in India

Alpha diversity = species richness within a single community. Beta diversity = change in diversity between
communities (turnover). Gamma diversity = total diversity of a landscape.

2.2 Values of Biodiversity

Value Type Description

Direct Use Value Food, medicine, timber, tourism (consumptive + productive)

Indirect Use Value Ecosystem services — pollination, water purification, carbon

sequestration

Option Value Future potential uses not yet discovered

Existence Value Ethical/intrinsic value of species existing

Bequest Value Value for future generations

2.3 Conservation Methods

In-situ Conservation (conservation in natural habitat):

Category Key Points

National Parks No human activity allowed; highest protection; ~106 in India

Wildlife Sanctuaries Some human activities permitted; ~566 in India

Biosphere Reserves UNESCO designation; core, buffer, transition zones; 18 in India

Community Reserves Community-managed; lowest restriction level

Conservation Reserves Government land adjacent to protected areas

Ex-situ Conservation (conservation outside natural habitat):

• Botanical Gardens — e.g., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah
• Zoological Parks (Zoos) — e.g., National Zoological Park, Delhi
• Seed Banks / Gene Banks — National Gene Bank, NBPGR, New Delhi
• Cryopreservation — freezing germplasm at -196°C in liquid nitrogen
• Tissue Culture / In-vitro propagation

2.4 Biodiversity Hotspots

A Biodiversity Hotspot (coined by Norman Myers, 1988) must have: (1) ≥1,500 endemic vascular plant
species AND (2) ≥70% of original vegetation lost. Currently 36 global hotspots (as of 2023).

India's four hotspots:

 States/Region Key Species

Lanka Kerala, Karnataka, TN, Goa, Maharashtra Lion-tailed macaque, Purple frog, Malabar giant sq

J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, NE India Snow leopard, Red panda, One-horned rhino

NE India, Myanmar, Indo-China Irrawaddy dolphin, Burmese roofed turtle

aman & Nicobar) Andaman & Nicobar Islands Nicobar megapode, Dugong

2.5 IUCN Red List Categories

Code Criteria

EX No reasonable doubt last individual dead

EW Only survives in captivity

CR >50% probability of extinction in 10 yrs/3 generatio

EN >20% probability of extinction in 20 yrs/5 generatio

VU >10% probability of extinction in 100 years

NT Close to qualifying for VU

LC Does not qualify for above categories

DD Insufficient data

2.6 Important Indian Protected Areas

State Famous For

Uttarakhand First NP in India (1936); Bengal tiger

Assam One-horned rhinoceros (UNESCO WHS)

West Bengal Mangroves; Bengal tiger; UNESCO WHS

Kerala Asian elephant, tigers

Gujarat Only wild Asiatic lions

Rajasthan Migratory birds; UNESCO WHS

Uttarakhand UNESCO World Heritage Site

Assam Golden langur, pygmy hog; UNESCO WHS

 UNIT 3 · Air Pollution

3.1 Definition & Sources

Air pollution = presence of foreign substances in the atmosphere in concentrations that are harmful to living
organisms, property, or climate.
Natural sources: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea spray, pollen, dust storms.
Anthropogenic sources: Combustion (vehicles, industries, power plants), agriculture (methane, ammonia),
construction, waste burning.

3.2 Classification of Air Pollutants

Definition Examples

Directly emitted from source CO, SO2, NO, PM, HC, NH3

Formed by reactions in atmosphere Ozone (O3), PAN, H2SO4, HNO3, Smog

3.3 Key Gaseous Pollutants — Detailed

Pollutant Full Name / Sources Effects

Formula

CO Carbon Monoxide Incomplete combustion; Combines with Hb → carboxyhaemoglobin (CoHb);

vehicles reduces O2-carrying capacity; headache, death

CO2 Carbon Dioxide Complete combustion, Primary GHG; global warming; ocean acidification
respiration

SO2 Sulphur Dioxide Coal burning, smelters, Irritates lungs; forms H2SO4 → acid rain; damages
volcanoes marble (stone leprosy)

NOx Nitrogen Oxides High-temp combustion, Smog, acid rain, eutrophication; NO2 = brown haze
(NO, NO2) vehicles

N2O Nitrous Oxide Agriculture, denitrification Powerful GHG (298× CO2); destroys stratospheric
ozone

CH4 Methane Livestock, rice paddies, GHG (25× CO2); precursor to tropospheric ozone
landfills

O3 Ozone Secondary — from Respiratory damage; crop damage; component of

(tropospheric) NOx+VOCs+sunlight smog

PAN Peroxy Acetyl Secondary — photochemical Lachrymatory (eye irritant); damages plants; no
Nitrate smog natural sources

NH3 Ammonia Agriculture, livestock waste Respiratory irritant; forms secondary PM; acid
deposition

H2S Hydrogen Sewage, oil refineries Rotten egg smell; toxic at high concentrations
Sulphide

3.4 Particulate Matter (PM)

Size Health Impact

) 2.5–10 µm Deposited in upper respiratory tract; coughing, bro

10
 <2.5 µm Penetrate deep lung alveoli; cardiovascular and lun
carcinogenic

<0.1 µm Enter bloodstream; systemic inflammation

d Particulates) All sizes General measure of air quality

Special particulates: Fly ash (coal combustion), asbestos fibres (mesothelioma), silica dust (silicosis), coal
dust (pneumoconiosis/black lung), cotton dust (byssinosis).

3.5 Types of Smog

Type Also Called Components Conditions Products

Classical / Sulphurous smog SO2 + Smoke + Fog Cold, humid, winter H2SO4 droplets; reduces
London Smog / Reducing smog + H2O morning; temperature visibility
inversion

Photochemical / Oxidising smog NOx + VOCs + Hot, dry, sunny, low O3, PAN, aldehydes,
LA Smog Sunlight wind; afternoon peak acrolein; eye irritation, crop
damage

3.6 Acid Rain

Normal rainwater pH ≈ 5.6 (due to dissolved CO2 forming H2CO3). Acid rain = pH below 5.6.
Formation: SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 → H2SO4; NOx + H2O → HNO3
Effects:
• Damages forests (pine/spruce susceptible); leaches nutrients from soil
• Acidifies lakes → kills fish (aluminium mobilisation)
• Corrodes buildings — stone leprosy on marble (Taj Mahal)
• Damages crops, reduces yield

3.7 Temperature Inversion & Air Quality Index

Temperature Inversion: Normally temperature decreases with altitude (normal lapse rate). In inversion, a warm
air layer sits above cool air near ground — traps pollutants. Types: Radiation inversion (night cooling),
subsidence inversion (descending air), frontal inversion.

Air Quality Index (AQI) — India's scale:

Category Colour

Good Green

Satisfactory Light green

Moderate Yellow

Poor Orange

Very Poor Red

Severe Dark red/Maroon

AQI parameters: PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb.
 UNIT 4 · Water Pollution

4.1 Sources of Water Pollution

Source Type Examples

Point Sources Industrial effluents (pipes, drains), sewage treatment plants, oil spills
from ships

Non-Point Sources Agricultural runoff (fertilisers, pesticides), urban stormwater runoff,

atmospheric deposition

Industrial Heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, Cr, As), acids, organic solvents, dyes

Agricultural Nitrates, phosphates, pesticides (DDT, endosulfan), sediment

Domestic Sewage, detergents, pathogens, pharmaceuticals

Thermal Heated water from power plants — reduces DO, accelerates algal
growth

Radioactive Nuclear plant effluents, mining runoff

4.2 Water Quality Parameters — Critical for Exam

Paramet Full Form What it measures Clean water value

er

DO Dissolved Oxygen dissolved in water; essential for aquatic life ≥8 mg/L (ideal); <4 mg/L = stressed
Oxygen

BOD Biochemic O2 needed by microbes to decompose organic <2 mg/L (clean); >10 mg/L
al Oxygen matter in 5 days at 20°C (polluted)
Demand

COD Chemical O2 needed to chemically oxidise all organic + BOD:COD ratio indicates
Oxygen inorganic matter biodegradability
Demand

TOC Total Organic carbon content Lower is better

Organic
Carbon

pH — Acidity/alkalinity; 0–14 scale 6.5–8.5 (drinking water standard)

TDS Total All dissolved inorganic/organic substances <500 mg/L (WHO drinking water)
Dissolved
Solids

Turbidity — Cloudiness — suspended particles <1 NTU (drinking water)

Coliform — Indicator bacteria for faecal contamination 0 per 100 mL (drinking water)
s

Key relationship: High BOD → microbes consume more DO → low DO → fish die (oxygen sag curve).
Saprophytic bacteria increase, aerobic organisms decrease.

4.3 Eutrophication — Detailed

Definition: Excessive enrichment of water bodies with nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus), leading to
algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and ecosystem collapse.
Process (step by step):
• Nutrient input (N, P) from fertilisers, sewage, detergents enters water body
• Algal bloom — rapid multiplication of algae and cyanobacteria
• Algae cover surface → reduces sunlight penetration → submerged plants die
• Dead algae decomposed by bacteria → BOD rises → DO crashes
• Anoxic conditions — fish die; H2S, CH4 produced; water becomes turbid and foul-smelling

Types: Natural eutrophication (slow; geological timescale) vs Cultural/Accelerated eutrophication

(human-induced; decades). Oligotrophic = nutrient-poor (clear, cold, deep). Mesotrophic = moderate.
Eutrophic = nutrient-rich. Hypertrophic = extremely nutrient-rich.

4.4 Heavy Metal Pollution

Sources Effects

Chlor-alkali plants, thermometers, fungicides Minamata disease (methylmercury) — neurologica

methylHg in fish

Zinc smelting, batteries, fertilisers Itai-Itai disease (Japan) — kidney damage, bone s

Leaded paint, batteries, pipes, petrol Neurotoxin especially in children; impairs cognitive

Groundwater (geological), pesticides, mining Arsenicosis — skin lesions, cancer (Bangladesh, W

Tanneries, electroplating Cr(VI) = carcinogen; skin ulcers

Geological weathering, fertilisers, industrial Fluorosis — dental (mottling) and skeletal (bone de

4.5 Water-Borne Diseases

Disease Causative Agent Type Transmission

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Bacteria Contaminated water/food; rice-water stools

Typhoid Salmonella typhi Bacteria Faecal-oral; contaminated water

Dysentery Shigella spp. Bacteria Contaminated water/food

(bacterial)

Dysentery Entamoeba histolytica Protozoa Faecal-oral contamination

(amoebic)

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia Protozoa Contaminated drinking water

Hepatitis A HAV Virus Faecal-oral; shellfish

Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Virus Faecal-oral; water contamination

Fluorosis Excess fluoride Chemical High-F groundwater (>1.5 mg/L)

Arsenicosis Excess arsenic Chemical High-As groundwater (>10 µg/L)

4.6 Ocean Pollution — Key Facts

• Oil spills: Torrey Canyon (1967), Exxon Valdez (1989), BP Deepwater Horizon (2010) — largest
accidental spill.
• Marine plastic: 8 million tons enter ocean annually; Great Pacific Garbage Patch; microplastics enter food
chain.
• Ocean acidification: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3; pH dropped from 8.2 to 8.1 since industrialisation; threatens
coral reefs and shellfish.
• Thermal pollution: Power plant cooling water; reduces DO; disrupts aquatic ecosystems.
 UNIT 5 · Climate Change & Global Warming

5.1 Greenhouse Effect — Natural vs Enhanced

Natural Greenhouse Effect: Solar shortwave radiation passes through atmosphere → heats Earth's surface →
Earth emits longwave (infrared) radiation → GHGs absorb and re-emit this → warms atmosphere. This is
essential for life (without it, Earth = -18°C instead of +15°C).
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: Human activities increase GHG concentrations → more heat trapped → global
warming.

5.2 Greenhouse Gases — Detailed Comparison

GHG GWP Lifetime in Main Sources Trend

(100yr) atm.

CO2 1 (baseli 100–300 yrs Fossil fuels, deforestation, cement 418 ppm (2023); +50%
ne) since pre-industrial

CH4 25 12 years Livestock, rice, landfills, wetlands, natural gas Rising; short-lived but
leaks potent

N2O 298 114 years Agriculture (fertilisers), wastewater, combustion 332 ppb (2023)

HFCs 12–14,8 Decades Refrigerants, aerosols (replaced CFCs) Rising; Kigali Amendment
00 addresses

SF6 22,800 3,200 yrs Electrical switchgear, magnesium smelting Long-lived industrial gas

Water Variable Days Natural; evaporation Amplifying feedback

vapour

GWP = Global Warming Potential — relative warming effect compared to CO2 over 100 years.

5.3 Climate Feedbacks

Mechanism Effect on Warming

g)

Melting ice → less white surface → less sunlight reflected → more Amplifies warming
absorption

ck Warmer air holds more water vapour (GHG) → more warming Strongest positive feedback

Melting permafrost releases stored CH4 and CO2 Amplifies warming

Drought/heat kills forests → less CO2 absorption Amplifies warming

g)

Warmer Earth radiates more heat to space — basic thermodynamics Stabilises at new equilibrium

CO2 + silicate rocks → carbonate → sequesters carbon Very slow stabiliser

5.4 Impacts of Climate Change

Temperature: Global average temperature rose ~1.1°C above pre-industrial levels (IPCC AR6, 2021). 2023
was the hottest year on record.
 • Sea level rise: ~20 cm rise since 1900; threatens low-lying nations (Maldives, Bangladesh, Tuvalu).
Thermal expansion + glacier melt.
• Extreme weather: More intense cyclones, heat waves, floods, droughts. Increased frequency and
intensity.
• Glacier retreat: Himalayan glaciers are melting at accelerated rates (Gangotri, Siachen).
• Coral bleaching: Warm waters cause corals to expel zooxanthellae → white skeleton → death (Great
Barrier Reef severely affected).
• Agriculture: Shifting crop zones, reduced yields in tropics, new pest distributions.
• Health: Heat stress, expanded disease vector ranges (malaria, dengue), food insecurity.
• Biodiversity: Species migration poleward/upward; phenological mismatches; increased extinctions.

5.5 Carbon Cycle

Carbon exists in atmosphere (CO2, CH4), oceans (dissolved CO2, carbonate), terrestrial biosphere (plants, soil),
and lithosphere (fossil fuels, limestone).
• Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + sunlight → glucose + O2 (removes CO2)
• Respiration: glucose + O2 → CO2 + H2O (releases CO2)
• Ocean uptake: ~25% of annual CO2 emissions absorbed by oceans
• Land uptake: ~30% absorbed by terrestrial ecosystems
• Carbon sinks: Forests, oceans, peatlands, soils
• Carbon sources: Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, cement production, agriculture

5.6 Mitigation & Adaptation

Strategy Examples

MITIGATION (reduce GHG) Renewable energy, energy efficiency, carbon capture & storage (CCS),
afforestation, reducing deforestation, carbon tax

ADAPTATION (adjust to change) Sea walls, drought-resistant crops, early warning systems, urban heat
island management, climate-smart agriculture

Carbon Neutrality Net zero CO2 emissions — sources balanced by sinks/offsets

Net Zero Emissions All GHG emissions balanced; India's target: Net Zero by 2070

REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in

developing countries
 UNIT 6 · Ozone Layer Depletion

6.1 Ozone — Structure & Location

Ozone (O3) = triatomic oxygen. The ozone layer sits in the stratosphere (15–35 km altitude), with maximum
concentration around 25 km. The Dobson Unit (DU) measures ozone column thickness; normal = ~300 DU.
Formation (Chapman mechanism): O2 + UV radiation → 2O (atomic oxygen); O + O2 → O3. Natural
equilibrium maintained by formation and destruction.

6.2 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

ODS Full Name ODP Uses Phase-out

CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons High Refrigerants, aerosol propellants, Phased out by 1996

(CFC-11, 12) (1.0) foam blowing (developed) / 2010
(developing)

HCFCs Hydrochlorofluorocarbo 0.02– Transitional CFC replacement Phase-out by 2030–2040

ns 0.11

HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons 0 (no CFC/HCFC replacement Phase-down under Kigali

Cl) Amendment 2016

Halons Bromofluorocarbons Very Fire extinguishers Phased out

high
(3–10)

CH3Br Methyl bromide 0.6 Soil fumigant, pest control Phased out

CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride 1.1 Solvent, chemical intermediate Phased out

CH3CCl3 Methyl chloroform 0.1 Industrial solvent Phased out

ODP = Ozone Depletion Potential (relative to CFC-11 = 1.0). HFCs have ODP = 0 but are potent GHGs —
hence Kigali Amendment.

6.3 Ozone Depletion Mechanism

CFCs released at surface → rise slowly to stratosphere (10–15 years) → UV breaks C-Cl bond → releases Cl·
(chlorine radical) → Cl· + O3 → ClO + O2 → ClO + O → Cl· + O2. One Cl atom can destroy 100,000 ozone
molecules in a catalytic chain.

Ozone hole over Antarctica: Discovered 1985 by British Antarctic Survey (Farman, Gardiner, Shanklin). Polar
Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) form in Antarctic winter → surface reactions release active Cl → when sunlight
returns in spring → rapid depletion. Ozone hole is seasonal (August–November).

6.4 Effects of Ozone Depletion

Blocked by ozone? Effects if reac

Not blocked Tanning, som

Mostly blocked Skin cancer (

ous Completely blocked Would be leth

• 1% decrease in ozone → 2% increase in UV-B → 3% increase in skin cancer incidence

 • Effects on ecosystems: Damages phytoplankton (basis of marine food chain), reduces crop yields, affects
amphibian populations
• Materials: Degrades plastics, rubber, paints

6.5 Ozone vs Climate Change — Key Distinctions

Ozone Depletion Climate Change

Stratosphere (15–35 km) Troposphere (0–12 km) + surface

UV-B increase Infrared trapped

CFCs, HCFCs, Halons (ODS) CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs

Montreal Protocol (1987) Paris Agreement (2015) / Kyoto Protocol

Some ODS are also GHGs; HFCs replace ODS but worsen climate
 UNIT 7 · Environmental Health & Pollution Diseases

7.1 Famous Pollution-Caused Diseases

Disease Causative Agent Location Symptoms

Minamata Disease Methylmercury (MeHg) — Minamata Bay, Japan Ataxia, tremors, sensory
from Chisso factory (1950s–60s) disturbances, congenital
neurological damage

Itai-Itai Disease Cadmium (Cd) — from Toyama, Japan (1950s) 'Ouch-ouch' — severe bone pain,
zinc mining kidney damage, osteomalacia,
fractures

Yokkaichi Asthma SO2, NOx, PM — from Yokkaichi, Japan (1960s) Severe asthma, bronchitis
petrochemical complex

Bhopal Gas Tragedy Methyl isocyanate (MIC) — Bhopal, India (1984) Eye damage, respiratory failure;
Union Carbide leak ~15,000+ deaths; worst industrial
disaster

Fluorosis Excess fluoride (>1.5 mg/L India (Rajasthan, AP, Dental fluorosis (mottled
water; >2 mg/kg food) Gujarat, UP) enamel); skeletal fluorosis (bone
deformity)

Arsenicosis Excess arsenic (>10 µg/L West Bengal, Bangladesh, Keratosis, Mees' lines on nails,
water) Bihar hyperpigmentation, skin cancer

Silicosis Crystalline silica dust Mining, sandblasting Progressive fibrosis of lung;

workers irreversible

Asbestosis Asbestos fibres Construction, shipbuilding Lung fibrosis; mesothelioma

workers (cancer of lung lining)

Pneumoconiosis Coal dust (Black Lung) Coal miners Progressive massive fibrosis of
lung

Byssinosis Cotton, flax, hemp dust Textile workers Monday fever, chest tightness,
progressive dyspnea

7.2 Vector-Borne Diseases

Disease Pathogen Vector Key Facts

Malaria Plasmodium spp. Female Anopheles P. falciparum most dangerous; climate change
mosquito expanding range

Dengue Dengue virus (4 Aedes Urban disease; clean stagnant water;

serotypes) aegypti/albopictus haemorrhagic fever possible

Chikungunya Chikungunya virus Aedes Joint pain; non-fatal but debilitating

aegypti/albopictus

Lymphatic Wuchereria bancrofti Culex mosquito Elephantiasis — massive swelling of limbs

filariasis

Plague Yersinia pestis Fleas on rats Bubonic, pneumonic, septicaemic forms

(bacteria)

Kala-azar Leishmania Sandfly Visceral; fever, spleen enlargement; Bihar, East

(Leishmaniasis) donovani (Phlebotomus) India
 Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma brucei Tsetse fly Sub-Saharan Africa; CNS damage

Japanese JE virus Culex mosquito Neurological damage; vaccine-preventable

Encephalitis

7.3 Noise Pollution

Noise = unwanted sound. Measured in decibels (dB). Pain threshold = 130 dB. Prolonged exposure to >85 dB
causes permanent hearing loss (NIHL).

Day (6AM–10PM) Night (10PM–6AM)

75 dB 70 dB

65 dB 55 dB

55 dB 45 dB

ls, schools) 50 dB 40 dB

Health effects: Hearing loss (NIHL), hypertension, sleep disturbance, stress hormones (cortisol, adrenaline),
cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment in children.

7.4 Radiation & Health

Source Health Effect

ops it Radon-222, uranium, plutonium Harmful if inh

heet stops it Sr-90, I-131, C-14 Skin burns, b

hick concrete Cs-137, Co-60, nuclear blasts Deep tissue d

oncrete Medical, industrial Similar to gam

reen Sun, lamps Skin cancer,

Nuclear accidents: Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine) — worst nuclear accident; Fukushima (2011, Japan) —
earthquake + tsunami; Three Mile Island (1979, USA).
 UNIT 8 · Renewable Energy

8.1 Overview & India's Energy Context

Renewable energy = energy from sources naturally replenished on human timescales. India's target: 500 GW
non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030; Net Zero by 2070. India is the 3rd largest renewable energy producer
globally (solar + wind).

8.2 Solar Energy

Working Principle Application

s Photoelectric effect — semiconductors (silicon) convert sunlight → Rooftop solar, solar parks, calculators, satellites
electricity

Plate Collector Dark absorber plate captures heat; fluid circulates Water heating (domestic, industrial)

cuated Tube Vacuum-sealed tubes; higher efficiency than FPC Water/space heating; colder climates

Power (CSP) Mirrors/lenses concentrate sunlight → heat → turbine Large-scale electricity; Parabolic trough, Solar towe

Dense, saline pond stores solar heat in lower layers (no convection) Industrial process heat; electricity in some cases

Box-type or parabolic; concentrates sunlight for cooking Rural cooking; avoids fuel consumption

India solar highlights: National Solar Mission (target: 100 GW solar by 2022; expanded to 280 GW by 2030).
International Solar Alliance (ISA) founded by India and France at Paris COP21 (2015).

8.3 Wind Energy

Wind turbines convert kinetic energy of wind → mechanical energy → electricity. Power ∝ (wind speed)³ —
doubling wind speed gives 8× more power.
• Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) — most common; blades face wind
• Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) — Darrieus, Savonius; omni-directional
• Offshore wind — stronger, steadier winds; higher installation cost
• India wind capacity: ~44 GW (2023); Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka are leaders
• World leaders: China, USA, Germany, India, Spain

8.4 Biomass & Biogas

Product Key Point

ustion or gasification Heat, electricity Traditional bi

gestion by methanogens Biogas (55–65% CH4) KVIC floating

ermal decomposition without O2) Biochar, bio-oil, syngas Carbon sequ

n → distillation Bioethanol Blended with

cation Biodiesel Blended with

KVIC = Khadi and Village Industries Commission. Gobar Gas = biogas from cattle dung. Deenbandhu model =
fixed-dome biogas plant (cheaper than floating drum).
 8.5 Hydropower
Converts potential energy of stored/flowing water → electricity. Largest source of renewable electricity globally.
• Large hydro (>25 MW): Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab/HP), Tehri Dam (Uttarakhand), Sardar Sarovar (Gujarat)
• Small hydro (<25 MW) and Mini (<2 MW): Minimal ecological impact; promoted in hilly areas
• Run-of-river: No large reservoir; minimal displacement; environmental impact lower
• Pumped storage: Pumps water uphill when surplus electricity → releases when demand high (grid
storage)
• Environmental concerns: Displacement, loss of forests, changes in sedimentation, fish migration
barriers, methane from reservoirs

8.6 Other Renewable Sources

Principle Global/India Status

Heat from Earth's interior → steam → turbine Iceland, USA, Kenya leaders; India has potential in
(HP)

Tidal range drives turbines (barrage/stream) France (La Rance, 240 MW, oldest); Korea, UK; In
Gulf of Khambhat

Oscillating water column or mechanical converters Experimental stage globally

gy Conversion Temperature difference between surface and deep ocean Tropical regions; NIOT (Chennai) prototype

Electrolysis of water using renewable electricity → H2 National Green Hydrogen Mission (India, 2023); 5
 UNIT 9 · Solid & Hazardous Waste Management

9.1 Classification of Solid Waste

Sources Examples

e (MSW) Households, markets, offices Food waste, paper, plastic, glass, metals

e Factories, mining, construction Slag, fly ash, packaging, scrap

Waste Hospitals, labs, clinics Sharps, anatomical waste, infectious waste, chemi

Industry, mining, agriculture Heavy metals, POPs, acids, solvents, radioactive

waste) Households, offices, industry Old computers, phones, TVs, batteries

Farms, livestock Crop residue, pesticide containers, animal waste

lition Waste Building activities Concrete, tiles, wood, steel

9.2 Hierarchy of Waste Management (3R+)

Strategy Description

Reduce Minimise waste generation at source; most preferre

Reuse Use items multiple times without reprocessing

Recycle Convert waste into new material/products

Recover Energy recovery from waste (incineration, WtE)

Disposal Landfill — least preferred; last resort

India's extended hierarchy: 5R = Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover. Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) — manufacturers responsible for product end-of-life.

9.3 Biomedical Waste — Colour Coding (Must Memorise)

Colour Waste Type Treatment

Yellow Bag Anatomical/pathological waste, soiled cotton, Incineration or deep burial

lab waste, expired medicine

Red Bag Recyclable contaminated plastics (IV tubes, Autoclave/disinfection → recycle

syringes without needles, catheters)

White/Translucent Sharps (needles, scalpels, blades) Needle cutter + blue container →

Puncture-proof autoclave
container

Blue/White Glassware (broken, uncontaminated) Disinfection → glass recycling

Puncture-proof
container

BMW (Management & Handling) Rules, India: Originally 1998; revised BMW Rules 2016; colour coding
updated in 2018.

9.4 E-Waste
India is the 3rd largest e-waste generator globally (~3.2 million tonnes/year). E-Waste (Management) Rules,
2016 (amended 2022) — EPR framework; targets for collection and recycling.
• Toxic substances in e-waste: Lead (solder, CRT glass), Mercury (LCD backlights, switches), Cadmium
(Ni-Cd batteries), Brominated flame retardants (PCBs), Arsenic, Beryllium
• Health risks to informal recyclers: Neurotoxicity, respiratory disease, cancer, endocrine disruption
• Basel Convention covers transboundary movement of e-waste

9.5 Waste Treatment Technologies

Technology Process Product/Use Suitable For

Composting Aerobic microbial Compost — soil Organic waste; backyard, windrow,

decomposition of organic conditioner vermicompost
waste

Vermicomposting Earthworms break down Vermicompost — rich Kitchen/garden waste

organic matter humus

Anaerobic Microbes decompose in Biogas + digestate Wet organic waste, sewage sludge
digestion absence of O2

Incineration Controlled high-temp Heat/electricity; ash Biomedical, hazardous waste

combustion (>850°C) residue

Sanitary Landfill Engineered disposal with Safe final disposal Non-recyclable residual waste
liner, leachate collection,
gas venting

Pyrolysis Thermal decomposition Pyrogas, bio-oil, char Plastics, biomass, rubber

without O2 (400–700°C)

Plasma Arc Ultra-high temperature Syngas; vitrified slag Hazardous, toxic, intractable waste
(10,000°C+)

Waste-to-Energy Various thermal or Electricity/heat Mixed MSW after source

(WtE) biological processes separation
 UNIT 10 · Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

10.1 Definition & Purpose

EIA = a systematic process to identify, predict, evaluate, and mitigate the biophysical, social, and other relevant
effects of development proposals prior to major decisions and commitments.
In India: EIA mandated under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; regulated by EIA Notification 2006
(amended 2020). All Category A projects require Central Government clearance; Category B projects require
State-level clearance.

10.2 EIA Process — Steps (Very Exam-Relevant)

Ste Name Description

p

1 Screening Decide whether EIA is required for the project (based on type, size, location)

2 Scoping Define scope and boundaries of the assessment; identify significant issues; prepare
Terms of Reference (ToR)

3 Baseline Data Collect data on existing environmental conditions (air, water, soil, ecology,
Collection socioeconomics)

4 Impact Prediction Predict potential environmental and social impacts of the proposed project

5 Alternatives Evaluate alternative designs, locations, technologies

Assessment

6 Mitigation Measures Identify measures to avoid, reduce, or offset adverse impacts

7 EIA Report / EIS Document findings in Environmental Impact Statement

8 Public Consultation Mandatory public hearing — affected communities comment on project

9 Review Expert appraisal of EIA report by Appraisal Committee

10 Decision (EC) Environmental Clearance granted/refused by MoEF&CC

11 Post-project Compliance monitoring; Environmental Management Plan (EMP) implementation

Monitoring

10.3 Types & Related Concepts

Concept Description

Strategic EIA (SEA) EIA for policies, plans, and programmes — proactive, upstream
decision-making

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) Evaluates social, cultural, community impacts of projects

Health Impact Assessment (HIA) Evaluates effects on public health

Cumulative Impact Assessment Assesses combined impacts of multiple projects over time

Environmental Audit Post-implementation review of project's actual environmental

performance

Environmental Management Plan (EMP) Document specifying mitigation, monitoring, and management
measures for the project
 Rapid EIA Seasonal data only; used for less complex projects

Comprehensive EIA Full annual data cycle; required for Category A projects

10.4 Indian Environmental Legislation

Year Scope

on) Act 1986 Umbrella act; empowers central govt to protect env

Control of Pollution) 1974 Establishes CPCB, SPCBs; standards for water qu

ntrol of Pollution) Act 1981 Air quality standards; emission norms

ct 1972 Protected area system; species protection schedul

) Act 1980 Prevents diversion of forest land for non-forest use

ct 2002 Implements CBD in India; NBAs; benefit sharing

les 1989/2016 Manage hazardous waste

one (CRZ) 1991/2011/2019 Regulates development in coastal areas

nal Act 2010 Establishes NGT for environment-related disputes

 UNIT 11 · Sustainable Development & SDGs

11.1 Definition & Principles

Brundtland Definition (1987, WCED "Our Common Future"): "Sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Three pillars: Environmental sustainability + Social equity + Economic development (sometimes called the
Triple Bottom Line — People, Planet, Profit).

Principle Content

Precautionary Principle When an activity raises threats to environment or human health,

precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause-effect
relationships are not scientifically established

Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) Those who produce pollution should bear the costs of managing it to
prevent damage to human health and the environment

CBDR Common But Differentiated Responsibilities — developed nations bear

greater responsibility given historical emissions

Intergenerational Equity Present generation has duty to preserve natural resources for future
generations

Intragenerational Equity Fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens within the
current generation

Integration Principle Environmental protection integrated into development planning, not

treated as separate

11.2 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) — All 17

SDGs (2015–2030): Adopted at UN Summit, September 2015, New York. Replace MDGs (2000–2015). 17
goals, 169 targets, 232 indicators.

SDG Title EVS Relevance

SDG 1 No Poverty Low — social

SDG 2 Zero Hunger Food security, sustainable agriculture

SDG 3 Good Health and Well-Being Environment-health linkages

SDG 4 Quality Education Low — social

SDG 5 Gender Equality Low — social

SDG 6 Clean Water and Sanitation ★★★ Water quality, WASH, water scarcity

SDG 7 Affordable and Clean Energy ★★★ Renewable energy, energy access

SDG 8 Decent Work and Economic Growth Green economy, sustainable growth

SDG 9 Industry, Innovation, Infrastructure Sustainable industrialisation

SDG 10 Reduced Inequalities Low — social

SDG 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities Urban sustainability, smart cities

SDG 12 Responsible Consumption and ★★★ Waste, resource efficiency, circular economy
Production
SDG 13 Climate Action ★★★ Climate change mitigation and adaptation

SDG 14 Life Below Water ★★★ Ocean conservation, marine pollution

SDG 15 Life on Land ★★★ Biodiversity, forests, land degradation, desertification

SDG 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Low — governance

Institutions

SDG 17 Partnerships for the Goals Implementation, finance, capacity

11.3 Circular Economy

A circular economy moves away from the traditional linear model (take-make-dispose) towards a regenerative
system where waste is minimised and resources are kept in use as long as possible.
• Linear Economy: Extract → Manufacture → Use → Discard
• Circular Economy: Design → Manufacture → Use → Repair/Refurbish/Recycle → Re-enter production
loop
• Guided by 3Rs and EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility)

11.4 Key Environment-Development Indicators

Indicator What it Measures

Human Development Index (HDI) Life expectancy + Education + Per capita income (UNDP)

Ecological Footprint Area of productive land needed to sustain a population's consumption

and absorb its waste

Biocapacity Productive land and water area available to regenerate resources

Environmental Performance Index (EPI) National performance on environmental health and ecosystem vitality
(Yale/Columbia)

Happy Planet Index (HPI) Wellbeing, life expectancy, inequality, ecological footprint

Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) GDP adjusted for environmental degradation, inequality, unpaid labour

Living Planet Index (LPI) WWF — trends in vertebrate population abundance

 UNIT 12 · Ecology Fundamentals

12.1 Basic Ecological Concepts

Term Definition

Ecology Study of relationships between organisms and their environment

(coined by Ernst Haeckel, 1866)

Population Group of individuals of the same species in a given area at a given time

Community All populations of different species living and interacting in an area

Ecosystem Community + abiotic environment (biotic + abiotic components

interacting)

Biosphere All ecosystems on Earth; zone of life (from deep sea to lower
atmosphere)

Habitat Physical place where an organism lives

Ecological niche Role/function of an organism in its ecosystem (how it lives, not just
where)

Biome Large-scale ecosystem defined by climate and vegetation (e.g., tropical

rainforest, tundra, desert)

Ecotone Transition zone between two different biomes/ecosystems (e.g.,

mangrove = land-sea ecotone)

Edge effect Greater species diversity at ecotones due to resources from both
adjacent communities

Carrying capacity (K) Maximum population size an environment can sustainably support

12.2 Food Chains, Food Webs & Trophic Levels

Category Examples

Autotrophs; photosynthesis/chemosynthesis Grasses, trees, algae, phytoplankton

mers Herbivores; eat producers Grasshopper, deer, rabbit, zooplankton

sumers Carnivores; eat herbivores Frog, small fish, fox

mers Top carnivores Snake, large fish, lion, tiger, shark

ores Break down dead organic matter Bacteria, fungi, earthworms, millipedes

10% Law (Lindeman's Law, 1942): Only ~10% of energy at one trophic level is transferred to the next. 90% is
lost as heat, respiration, waste. This limits food chains to 4–5 levels typically.

Grazing Food Chain: Plant → Herbivore → Carnivore (starts with living plants). Detritus Food Chain: Dead
organic matter → Detritivore → Decomposer (starts with dead material).

12.3 Ecological Pyramids

Inverted? Notes

Can be inverted Number of organisms per trophic level; inverted in

when one tree supports many insects
 Can be inverted Total dry weight per trophic level; inverted in aquat
(phytoplankton T1 < zooplankton T2 momentarily)

Always upright Energy flow — always decreases up the chain; mo

universally upright

12.4 Ecological Succession

Ecological succession = gradual, directional change in species composition of a community over time, from
pioneer species to climax community.

Starting Point Example Sequence

Bare substrate with no prior life (bare rock, lava, sand dune) Bare rock → lichens → mosses → ferns → shrubs
forest

n Disturbed area with residual soil (fire, flood, farming) Abandoned field → grasses → shrubs → pioneer t
(faster than primary)

Open water Phytoplankton → submerged plants → floating plan

scrub → forest

Dry habitat (rock, desert) Pioneers (crustose lichens) → mosses → herbs →

Climax community: Stable, self-reproducing end-state of succession for a given climate. Pioneer species:
First colonisers — tolerant of harsh conditions (e.g., lichens on rock). Keystone species: Species with
disproportionately large effect on ecosystem relative to its abundance (e.g., sea otter maintaining kelp forests;
elephant as ecosystem engineer).

12.5 Biogeochemical Cycles

Cycle Key Process Key Reservoir Human Impact

Carbon Cycle Photosynthesis, Oceans, limestone, fossil Fossil fuel burning raises CO2;
respiration, decomposition, fuels deforestation reduces sinks
combustion

Nitrogen Cycle Fixation, nitrification, Atmosphere (78% N2) Fertilisers → eutrophication; NOx →
denitrification, acid rain; N2O → ozone depletion
ammonification

Phosphorus Weathering, uptake, Rocks, ocean sediment Phosphate mining; eutrophication; no

Cycle decomposition, gaseous phase
sedimentation

Water Cycle Evaporation, transpiration, Oceans (97% of water) Deforestation disrupts

condensation, evapotranspiration; climate change
precipitation, runoff alters precipitation

Sulphur Cycle Weathering, Rocks, ocean SO2 from coal → acid rain
decomposition,
combustion, volcanic
emission
 UNIT 13 · Ecosystems

13.1 Forest Ecosystems

Type Climate Location Features

Tropical Hot, wet Amazon, Congo, SE Asia, NE Highest biodiversity; multi-layered

Rainforest year-round India canopy; nutrient-poor soils; quick nutrient
(>2000 mm rain) cycling

Tropical Hot; distinct dry India (sal, teak forests), parts Trees shed leaves in dry season; sal,
Dry/Deciduous season of Africa teak, bamboo

Temperate Moderate; 4 Europe, E. North America, Oaks, maples, beeches; rich soil;
Deciduous seasons China, Japan seasonal colour change

Temperate Mild, wet Pacific NW USA/Canada, Conifer-dominated; mossy; endemic

Rainforest Chile, NZ species

Boreal Forest Cold; long Canada, Russia, Scandinavia Coniferous (pine, spruce, fir); wolverine,
(Taiga) winters; short moose, lynx
summers

Mangrove Forest Coastal tropical Sundarban, India's coasts, SE Salt-tolerant; prop roots; nursery for fish;
Asia storm buffer; carbon dense (blue carbon)

13.2 Grassland Ecosystems

Location Key Features

Africa (Serengeti), India (some areas) Scattered trees; seasonal rainfall; lions, elephants,

d N. America (Prairie), Eurasia (Steppe), S. America (Pampas) No trees; deep fertile soil (chernozem/mollisols); bi
wolves

High altitude Alpine meadows; Bugyals in Uttarakhand; Snow le

Deccan plateau, floodplains Blackbuck, Indian wolf, Indian bustard (critically en

13.3 Aquatic Ecosystems

Freshwater Ecosystems:

Features Examples

Standing water; stratified (thermocline); euphotic zone for Dal Lake, Chilika Lake, Wular Lake
photosynthesis

Flowing water; high O2; varied habitats (riffle, pool, run) Ganga, Brahmaputra, Godavari

Shallow water; high productivity; Ramsar sites Keoladeo Ghana, Loktak Lake

Where rivers meet sea; mixing of fresh and salt water; highly productive Sundarbans, Chilika (lagoon)

Marine Ecosystems:

Depth/Location Features

Between high and low tide marks Exposed to air twice daily; barnacles, mussels, cra

Continental shelf (0–200m) Most productive; coral reefs, kelp forests; highest f
 Mid-water, surface to deep Phytoplankton-zooplankton-fish food chain; whale

p sea) >2000m No light; chemosynthesis-based food chains; hydro

extreme pressure

Tropical shallow (<50m) 'Rainforests of the sea'; highest marine biodiversity

 UNIT 14 · Natural Disasters

14.1 Classification of Natural Disasters

Category Types

Geological/Geophysical Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, landslides, avalanches

Hydrometeorological Floods, cyclones/hurricanes/typhoons, droughts, tornadoes, hailstorms,

blizzards

Biological Pandemics (COVID-19), locust swarms, algal blooms

Climatic Heat waves, cold waves, wildfires

14.2 Earthquakes
Cause: Movement of tectonic plates along fault lines. Energy released as seismic waves (P-waves, S-waves,
Surface waves). Focus/Hypocenter = where earthquake originates underground. Epicenter = point on surface
directly above focus.
Measurement: Richter scale (logarithmic — each unit = 10× amplitude; 32× more energy); Mercalli scale
(intensity based on damage).
Indian seismic zones: Zone II (low) to Zone V (very high risk — Himalayan region, Andaman, NE India). Delhi
in Zone IV.

14.3 Tsunamis
Generation: Submarine earthquakes (>6.5 magnitude), volcanic eruptions, or submarine landslides displace
large volume of water. In deep ocean: speed ~800 km/h, wave height ~1m (undetectable); near coast: slows to
~50 km/h, height can exceed 30m.
Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004): 9.1 magnitude earthquake off Sumatra; 14 countries affected; ~230,000
deaths; led to establishment of Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System (IOTWS).

14.4 Cyclones / Hurricanes / Typhoons

All refer to the same phenomenon — intense tropical storms with a warm core and organised circulation around
a low-pressure centre. Name depends on region: Cyclone (Indian Ocean/Pacific south of equator), Hurricane
(Atlantic/NE Pacific), Typhoon (NW Pacific).
Formation conditions: Sea surface temperature >26°C; moisture; Coriolis force (at least 5° from equator); low
wind shear.
Saffir-Simpson scale: Category 1–5 based on sustained wind speed. Category 5 = sustained winds >252
km/h.
India's cyclone-prone coasts: East coast (Bay of Bengal) more vulnerable than west coast (Arabian Sea).
Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal highly exposed.

14.5 Floods

Cause Examples

Excess rainfall + runoff Most common; poor drainage; urbanisation increases runoff

Dam/reservoir failure Banqiao Dam failure (1975, China) — deadliest dam disaster
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) Himalayan hazard; warming increases frequency

Coastal storm surge Associated with cyclones; salt water inundation

Flash floods Sudden intense rainfall; narrow valleys; little warning time

14.6 Disaster Management in India

Body/Framework Role

Disaster Management Act, 2005 Legal framework; created NDMA, SDMAs, DDMAs

NDMA (National Disaster Management Apex body; chaired by Prime Minister; policy and planning
Authority)

NDRF (National Disaster Response Force) Specialised response teams; 16 battalions

SDMA State Disaster Management Authority — state level

Sendai Framework 2015–2030 UN framework for DRR; 7 global targets including reduce disaster
mortality

ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

 UNIT 15 · Key Environmental Terminologies

15.1 Pollution & Contaminants

Term Definition

Biomagnification Progressive increase in concentration of a pollutant at each successive

trophic level (e.g., DDT: water → plankton → small fish → big fish →
osprey). Also called biological magnification.

Bioaccumulation Build-up of a pollutant within a single organism over its lifetime (within
one trophic level)

Bioconcentration Accumulation of a substance from water into an aquatic organism

Persistence Ability of a chemical to resist degradation; measured as half-life

POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants — resist chemical, biological, photolytic

degradation; bioaccumulate; travel long distances (e.g., DDT, PCBs,
dioxins)

Endocrine Disruptors (EDCs) Chemicals that mimic or block hormones (e.g., BPA, phthalates,
pesticides, PCBs)

Microplastics Plastic particles <5mm; found in ocean, soil, drinking water, human
blood

VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds — evaporate at room temp; benzene,

toluene, formaldehyde; contribute to smog and indoor air pollution

Dioxins Chlorinated organic compounds; by-products of incineration; potent

POPs; carcinogens

Leachate Liquid that drains through landfill — contaminated with dissolved waste;
pollutes groundwater

15.2 Ecological Terms

Term Definition

Albedo Fraction of incident solar radiation reflected by a surface; ice = high

albedo (~0.9); dark forest = low albedo (~0.1)

Carrying Capacity (K) Maximum population an environment can sustain indefinitely given
available resources

Ecological Footprint Area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the
resources consumed and absorb the waste generated by a given
population

Biocapacity The capacity of an ecosystem to regenerate what people demand; if

footprint > biocapacity → ecological deficit/overshoot

Ecological Niche Unique role/function of an organism in its community including how it

obtains food, avoids predators, reproduces

Ecotone Transition zone between two ecosystems; typically higher biodiversity

due to edge effect

Keystone Species Species whose impact on its community is disproportionately large

relative to its abundance (concept: Robert Paine, 1969)
Umbrella Species Species whose conservation leads to protection of many other
co-existing species (e.g., tiger in India)

Flagship Species Charismatic species used to symbolise conservation campaigns (e.g.,

giant panda, tiger)

Indicator Species Species sensitive to environmental changes; their presence/absence

signals ecosystem health (e.g., lichens for air quality; stonefly for clean
water)

Endemic Species Species found only in a specific geographic area and nowhere else
(e.g., Nilgiri tahr — Western Ghats)

Invasive Species Non-native species that spreads rapidly and harms native
species/ecosystem (e.g., water hyacinth, Lantana camara in India)

Mutualism Both species benefit (+/+); e.g., mycorrhizae-plant, clownfish-anemone,

nitrogen-fixing bacteria-legume

Commensalism One benefits, other unaffected (+/0); e.g., barnacles on whales

Parasitism One benefits (+), one harmed (−); e.g., tapeworm in human gut

Predation Predator kills and eats prey (+/−)

Competition Both species harmed (−/−); intraspecific (within) or interspecific

(between species)

Symbiosis Close, long-term interaction between two different species (can be any
type)

15.3 Climate & Atmospheric Terms

Term Definition

Albedo Reflectivity; high albedo = more solar reflection = cooling effect

Carbon Footprint Total GHG emissions caused directly and indirectly by an

individual/organisation/product; expressed in CO2-equivalent

Carbon Sequestration Long-term removal and storage of CO2 from atmosphere (forests,
oceans, geological formations, BECCS)

Carbon Sink Reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases (oceans, forests,
soil)

Carbon Source Reservoir that releases more carbon than it absorbs (burning fossil
fuels, deforestation)

Urban Heat Island (UHI) Urban areas significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to
human activities, impervious surfaces, reduced vegetation

Albedo Feedback Reduced ice → lower albedo → more heat absorbed → more warming
→ positive feedback

ENSO El Niño–Southern Oscillation; periodic warming (El Niño) and cooling

(La Niña) of Pacific Ocean; affects global rainfall and temperature
patterns

Monsoon Seasonal reversal of wind direction; SW monsoon (June–Sept) brings

rainfall to India

Permafrost Ground that remains frozen for ≥2 consecutive years; melting releases
CH4 and CO2
Blue Carbon Carbon captured by marine ecosystems: mangroves, seagrasses, salt
marshes; very high carbon storage per unit area

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1988, WMO + UNEP);

produces Assessment Reports; AR6 (2021–2022)

Dobson Unit (DU) Measure of ozone column thickness; 1 DU = 0.01mm of ozone at

standard pressure; normal ~300 DU

15.4 Policy & Management Terms

Term Definition

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment — systematic process to evaluate

environmental effects of proposed project before approval

EMS Environmental Management System — e.g., ISO 14001 standard for

organisational environmental management

EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) Producers responsible for take-back and recycling of their products at
end-of-life

Green GDP GDP adjusted for environmental depreciation — accounts for depletion
of natural resources

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) Financial incentives offered to communities/landowners for maintaining
ecosystem services

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme — headquartered in Nairobi,

Kenya; created by Stockholm 1972

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature — HQ Gland,

Switzerland; publishes Red List

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature — conservation NGO; Living Planet Index

GEF Global Environment Facility — funding mechanism for global

environmental projects under several conventions

IPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services — 'IPCC for biodiversity'

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board — India; standards for air, water, noise

MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change — India's nodal

ministry

NGT National Green Tribunal — India; quasi-judicial body for environmental

disputes; established 2010

Kyoto Annex I Developed countries + economies in transition (EU, USA, Japan,

Russia, Australia, etc.) with binding emission reduction targets under
Kyoto Protocol

CBDR Common But Differentiated Responsibilities — developing nations

acknowledged as having different historical emission contributions

15.5 Land & Water Resource Terms

Term Definition

Desertification Land degradation in arid/semi-arid areas resulting in desert-like

conditions; tackled by UNCCD
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) No net loss of healthy land; SDG 15.3 target

Soil Erosion Removal of topsoil by wind or water; accelerated by deforestation,

overgrazing, poor farming

Waterlogging Soil pores saturated with water; reduces aeration; associated with poor
irrigation management

Salinisation Accumulation of soluble salts in soil; common in irrigated arid areas;

reduces crop yield

Aquifer Underground layer of rock/sediment that holds groundwater; confined vs

unconfined

Recharge Zone Area where water infiltrates into an aquifer

Watershed/Catchment Area of land draining into a common waterbody or river

Riparian Zone Land area adjacent to a river/stream; buffers runoff; habitat for wildlife

Wetland Area where water covers soil or is near surface; Ramsar Convention
defines as 'areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water'

Peatland Wetland with >30 cm of peat (partially decomposed organic matter);

major carbon store; ~3% of Earth's land but stores 30% of soil carbon

Blue-Green Infrastructure Using natural water systems (wetlands, rivers, urban trees) for
stormwater management

Virtual Water Water embedded in food and products — water used in production
process; important for water scarce countries trading in food
 RAPID REVISION: High-Probability Fact Clusters

Critical Year-Agreement-Focus Triples

Event/Agreement Key Keyword

Stockholm Conference (UNCHE) UNEP established; Only One Earth

Ramsar Convention Wetlands

CITES Wildlife trade

Vienna Convention Ozone protection framework

Montreal Protocol Phase-out ODS (CFCs, HCFCs, Halons)

Brundtland Report (Our Common Future) Sustainable development definition

Basel Convention Hazardous waste transboundary movement

Rio Earth Summit (UNCED) Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD, Rio Declaration

UNCCD Desertification

Kyoto Protocol Binding emission cuts; CDM, JI, ET

Rotterdam Convention PIC for hazardous chemicals

Cartagena Protocol Biosafety; LMOs/GMOs

Stockholm Convention POPs — Dirty Dozen

Johannesburg Summit (WSSD) Rio+10; WEHAB

Nagoya Protocol ABS — genetic resources benefit sharing

Rio+20 (UNCSD) 'The Future We Want'

Minamata Convention Mercury pollution

Paris Agreement 1.5°C; NDCs; $100B climate finance

SDGs adopted 17 Goals, 2030 Agenda

Kigali Amendment Phase-down HFCs

Kunming-Montreal GBF 30x30 target by 2030

Diseases — Cause-Location-Symptom (Must Know)

Location Unique Symp

ry Japan (Chisso factory) Neurological

Toyama, Japan Bone pain, ki

mg/L Rajasthan, AP, India Dental mottlin

µg/L West Bengal, Bangladesh Skin lesions,

Bhopal, India 1984 Eye damage,

Miners worldwide Irreversible lu

Construction workers Cancer of lun

 Smog Quick Comparison

London/Classical Smog LA/Photochemical Smog

SO2 + smoke + fog NOx + VOCs + sunlight

Cold, humid, winter Hot, dry, sunny, afternoon

H2SO4 droplets O3, PAN, aldehydes

Reducing smog Oxidising smog

Respiratory + visibility Eye irritation, crop damage

Kyoto Mechanisms — Quick Recall

Parties Nature

ment Mechanism) Annex I → Non-Annex I (developing) country Project-based; CERs (Certified Emission Reduction

on) Annex I → Annex I country Project-based; ERUs (Emission Reduction Units)

g) Among Annex I countries Cap-and-trade; AAUs (Assigned Amount Units)

Indian Protected Areas Framework

Activity Allowed Count (approx)

None (strictest) ~106

Limited human activity (grazing, collection) ~566

UNESCO; Core + Buffer + Transition zones 18 (12 in UNESCO network)

e Govt land + community buffer ~100+

Community-managed; lowest protection ~100+

ct Tiger) Core (national park/sanctuary) + buffer 53

End of Notes. Prepared for UGC NET Paper 1 — Environmental Studies (EVS). All 15 units mapped to Tier
1–3 high-probability areas identified in the question-paper analysis.