SITE ADMINSTRATION NOTES

HARARE POLYTECTNIC

MODULE CODE:313/22 /M08

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: MOBILISE CIVIL ENGINEERING RESOURCES

Construction management: mobilisation

Mobilisation refers to the activities carried out after the client has appointed the trade
contractors, but before the trade contractors commence work on site. It is a preparatory stage
during which the majority of activities are managed by the construction manager.

Preparing for the construction stage

The construction manager arranges a pre-contract meeting with the consultant team and trade
contractors to discuss procedures that will be adopted during the construction stage.

There are a range of tasks necessary to prepare for the construction stage:

 The construction manager co-ordinates the issue of production

information for construction.

 The client and construction manager prepare and agree schedules of conditions for
adjacent properties or structures that will be retained.

 The client and construction manager check that all necessary insurance policies are
in place for construction work and site ownership.
  The client and construction manager check that all
necessary permissions, approvals, party wall agreements and other statutory
requirements are in place and that all necessary planning conditions have been satisfied.

 If necessary, and if it has not already been done, the client appoints; party
wall surveyor(s), an approved inspector, site inspectors and an in-
house or outsourced engineering team to witness testing and commissioning and to take
over the running of the services as soon as practical completion is certified.

Construction management: mobilisation

Mobilisation refers to the activities carried out after the client has appointed the trade
contractors, but before the trade contractors commence work on site. It is a preparatory stage
during which the majority of activities are managed by the construction manager.

Mobilising

Mobilisation may involve the construction manager carrying out the following tasks:

 Co-ordinating the preparation and issue of a project handbook setting out responsibilities,
procedures, and lines of communication for the construction stage.

 Preparing method statements and obtaining method statements from trade contractors.

 Preparing a site layout plan for construction.

 Making arrangements for site communications such as the receipt and distribution
of post and information and communications technology (ICT).

 Managing specialist design and drawing approval. They may wish to appoint a design co-
ordinator to be responsible for this.
  Advertising and selecting any remaining contracts such as catering, security and
cleaning contracts. NB as with trade contracts, these contracts are placed with the client,
but managed by the construction manager.

 Establishing a contract register scheduling: the contracts that have been placed, who
signed them and when, what the value of the contract is and where it is stored. This can
be crucial information if for example the construction manager becomes insolvent.

 Establishing an asset register scheduling what assets there are on site and who they
belong to. This information may later be incorporated into the building owner's manual.

 Establishing all statutory site registers such as; lifting equipment, dangerous
and explosive substance storage, scaffolding and accident reports etc.

 Complying with any statutory conditions that must be satisfied prior to construction (such
as tree protection, submission of
contaminated soil disposal plans, approval of work adjacent to an operating rail track and
so on).

FIVE ESSENTIAL PRIORITIES WHEN SETTING

UP A CONSTRUCTION SITE
Getting started with a new construction project can be a complex and time-consuming
process. After the wait for planning permission is finally over and the green light has
officially been given to the project, everyone involved will want to get started as soon as
possible - but this can only happen once the necessary steps have been taken to set up the
construction site in a way that’s both safe and secure.

Rushing through this process can result in unnecessary risks and crucial details being
missed, leading to unsafe working conditions, poor-quality work and severe reputational
damage, so it’s vital for companies to get their planning just right before the construction
phase can begin in earnest. Fortunately, there are plenty of guides and best practice
standards available to help ensure that this process goes smoothly.

Here are five of the most important factors to consider when setting up a new construction
site:
CREATE A SECURE PERIMETER TO LIMIT
ACCESS AND PROTECT THE PUBLIC
One of the most important aspects of establishing a safe construction site is making sure
the perimeters are well-defined and secured against any risk of potential threats to the
health and safety of members of the public.

That means setting up fencing to prevent unauthorised access, and making sure that there
is plenty of clearance between the site and any public thoroughfares to prevent any
passersby from being injured by machinery, equipment, falling objects or uneven ground
associated with your construction project. If your work is going to involve the use of
vehicles, then this also means planning safe traffic routes that are properly demarcated, and
have space for walkways and crossings where necessary.

Finally, make sure that you put up signage and notices all around the site to provide those
in the area with necessary information about the details of the project, contact details for
your company, and the potential hazards. These signs will also act as a reminder to your
own staff and contractors about their professional responsibilities when working on site.

ESTABLISH A WORKFLOW IN LINE WITH HEALTH

AND SAFETY RULES
Once the working area has been established, it’s vital to devise a workflow and routine that
allows the project to be completed within time and on budget, while also conforming to the
relevant health and safety regulations. A failure to do so can have very serious
consequences - both in terms of the risk of injury, and the threat of regulatory intervention -
so this isn’t something to be taken lightly.

First of all, carry out a thorough risk assessment to identify any potential hazards that can
already be found on site - hidden wells, electrical cables, and gas or water channels are all
good examples of risks that are hard to identify at first glance - before reviewing the key
tasks and processes that your project will include, and document how the associated risks
will be managed. By thinking ahead, you’ll be able to brief your staff on the best way to
complete any given task in a way that keeps safety risks to a minimum.

Other key safety processes you’ll need include a sign-in register - so you’re always aware of
who is working on the premises - and a first aid procedure to ensure that anyone who does
sustain an injury is cared for swiftly. Once these plans are in place, staff should be given
thorough training to make sure everyone on site is aware of their responsibilities.
HAVE YOUR PAPERWORK AND
DOCUMENTATION IN ORDER
Nobody likes having to deal with bureaucracy, but it’s an unavoidable reality of the
construction business. Although requirements will vary from project to project, you can be
sure that a construction phase plan, survey reports, contract documents and a detailed
health and safety plan will all be needed, with the relevant industry regulators notified and
given an opportunity to carry out inspections where necessary. Specific permits may also be
required for certain high-risk activities, such as working at height or in confined spaces.

It’s also worth giving some thought to the kind of information that needs to be displayed on
site, whether this is through informational posters or update documents posted on a
communal noticeboard. Health and safety flyers and fire and emergency plans will generally
be displayed prominently, alongside context-appropriate warning signs and insurance
certificates. The better informed your workforce is, the safer your project will be.

GET THE EQUIPMENT YOU NEED FOR THE

WORK AND YOUR STAFF
It goes without saying that the success of any construction project depends on having the
right tools for the job, so putting arrangements in place to get hold of the necessary
equipment as soon as possible is essential. Your equipment requirements will vary by
project, and will become clear during the planning process, which is another reason why
comprehensive preliminary assessments are so essential.

When figuring out what tools you’ll need, don’t forget to also consider the personal
protective equipment (PPE) requirements of your staff, as this is a key aspect of your health
and safety responsibilities. Hard hats, safety boots and hi-vis workwear are always going to
be necessary, while specific tasks may require other dedicated items of PPE, including
earmuffs, dust masks, protective eyewear or heavy-duty gloves. When it comes to
construction work, there’s no such thing as being overprepared.

SORT OUT THE NECESSARY STORAGE AND ON-

SITE AMENITIES
It’s likely that your construction project will involve significant amounts of manual handling,
whether this means moving equipment or transporting waste materials away from the work
area. As such, it’s vital to have storage solutions in place to keep your site well-organised
and tidy, even when you’re in the middle of a complex building or excavation process.
However, having proper on-site facilities isn’t just a matter of storage - it’s just as important
to ensure your site has all of the amenities that workers will need to maintain their welfare,
including toilets, washing areas, fresh drinking water, changing rooms, and places to rest.
The latter is particularly important if you’re carrying out work on a long-term timescale, and
you require staff to spend extended periods on site.

In cases like this, it may benefit your organisation to look into portable accommodation
options, which can include modular sleeper cabins with en-suite facilities, or dining cabins
that allow staff to prepare and eat their meals communally. This can help to ensure that the
personal needs of your staff are being met, which makes it more likely that your
construction project will go smoothly and successfully.

Welfare Facilities on Construction Site for Labourers

HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

Monalisa Patel

 9th August, 2020

Arranging safe and healthy environment for labourers while they work at a construction site is of
prime importance for the site-owner as well as for the workers. It is the client’s
(site-owner/promoter) sole duty to make sure that contractor has made necessary arrangements to
provide adequate welfare facilities to labourers. On bigger projects i.e. longer than 30 days,
client must ensure that the construction work does not start unless site welfare units are
methodically arranged for the labourers.

The construction site must have following welfare facilities for labourers working hands:

 Constant supply and accessibility of safe drinking water

 Availability of changing rooms and lockers

 Living Accommodations/Shelter
  Sanitary and toilet facilities

 Washing facilities

 Canteen

 Facilities for Rest

 Arrangement of first aid in case of any emergency medical situation.

Welfare facilities on construction site should be provided at a central location accessible within a
reasonable distance or time. Following temporary amenities should be made or provided.

Welfare Facilities on Construction Site for Labourers

Good Quality Drinking Water for Labourers on Construction Site

Drinking water jugs should be placed at various accessible places with clean cups for drinking
water.

Clean and quality drinking water is essential for workers at the construction site regardless of
what type of work they do. Workers should always be given easy access to a source of clean
water to prevent the risk of dehydration. Therefore, special attention is absolutely essential to
water quality and quantity.

There should be a readily available source of wholesome drinking water ideally from the mains.
If that is not available for the time being, bottles or tanks of quality water should be provided to
maintain the water supply.

If you are using plastic tank then you must be aware of its safety

HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

Is Plastic Water Tank Safe?

Kinjal Mistry

 May 4, 2018
Mark clearly on the drinking water supply to differentiate between drinkable and non-drinkable
water. Drinking water source at the outlet requires cups/ glasses or other drinking containers to
drink water safely and hygienically.

Drinking-water should not be placed near unsafe point. For example, drinking water should be
kept at a safe distance from the area/spot where it can be contaminated by chemicals, dust, or
other hazardous substances. Whatever may be the source of drinking water at any place on the
site, it must be clearly marked as drinking-water with a suitable sign or in words or by both in
local language.

Facility of Changing Room and Lockers for Construction Workers on Site

Provisions should be made on site to secure storage facilities for personal clothing to be not worn
on site as well as for protective clothing i.e. safety boot, high visibility jackets needed for site
work. There should be privacy and convenience for both men and women to make their changes
separately. Where there is a chance of protective site clothing contamination, separate facility
should be provided for storing every day and site clothing. Also, adequate number of secure
hooks should be provided for hanging clothes or cupboard if possible. Lockers also should be
provided to place their valuables.

Living Accommodations/Shelter for Workers on Construction Site

The provision of labour’s accommodation or shelter is usually related with the immigration of an
external workforce. There are various reasons for this, i.e. either the local labour supply or
skilled labour is inadequate, or the workers are not available due to the remote area of the site or
maybe because the work needs certain special skills from the labours hence availability of
workforce may seem compromised.

The shelter should be provided either of building type or in a conventional container for the
resting and sleeping purpose. This can also be a temporary but safe construction for
accommodation of the on-site labours.

The accommodation allotted should be suitable by its location, and it must be safe, clean and at
the minimum should meet the basic needs of workers. It is important that there is enough
protection against exposure to fire, wind, flood and other natural hazards. Living
accommodations for workers must be located within a reasonable distance from the worksite.

Sanitary and Toilets Facilities for Construction Labourers

These facilities should include water closets, portable urinals, and toilet. Toilet facilities also
need running water and flushing toilet, which should be well connected to drainage. The other
way is to provide it with a built-in water supply and drainage tank.

The construction workers should have the facility of accessing an adequate number of toilets.
Adequate services mean that enough bathrooms or toilets should be constructed so that people do
not have to wait for long time. Toilet arrangements are important to avoid all types of
contamination and to prevent the risk of spreading infectious disease if any.

The toilet facilities should also be located conveniently and should be easily accessible. Shorter
distance from the worksite to the toilet means reducing excessive and unproductive time. Toilets
should be well ventilated, well lit and clean with standard washing facilities adjacent to it for
washing purpose after every use.

Sanitary and toilet facilities should never be shared between male and female labours. If you do
so, then provide doors with secure lock. Specific additional sanitary facilities must be provided
for women.
Workers not only need to understand the utility to maintain high level of personal hygiene but
also they should be aware enough to avoid infection and disease transmission risk, which often
becomes prevalent due to insufficient sanitary facilities.

Washing Facilities for Workers at the Construction Site

In the construction field, work is mostly a bit messy type which includes dusty and dirty
ambiance. It also includes the handling of chemicals and other hazardous substances. Thus,
washing facilities is a prerequisite here for health safety like ensuring prevention from chemical
contamination while eating, and skin damage due to the side effect of chemicals. Besides that,
workers should be able to clear grime and dirt accumulated on body in daily course which may
cause different types of diseases and sickness.

Washing facilities may include provision of clean and orderly placed basins or sink, which
should be large enough for people to wash their face, hands arms, and legs. It should have the
supply of cold and hot, or lukewarm water. The facility of availability of running water with
washing agents or soap for the cleaning purpose should be adequate for the all the workers.

Canteen for Construction Labourers on the Working Site

The food-canteen should be adequately protected from the outside climate where one can
comfortably eat food brought from home or supplied by the appointed vendors. Canteen may
also be used as rest point provided there is no obligation to purchase food. If canteen service is
provided, it saves the time for the construction workers.

Facilities like tables, benches, individual drinking cups and plates should also be provided in a
canteen. Canteen must be located little away from workstation to minimize the random contact
with dust, dirt or other dangerous substances.

Good hygiene standards are imperative in a canteen. Facilities must be maintained in a clean and
sanitary condition, as well as in compliance with the standard hygiene and safety requirements.

Facilities for Rest on Construction Site

Restrooms or rest areas should be well equipped with tables and seating for sufficient number of
persons. They should also have arrangements for meals to be prepared. It should also safeguard
labourers from harsh weather conditions.

Construction labours start their work early depending upon weather. They start their day with
alertness and with productive work schedules but their activity level may get reduced as the day
starts rolling. Therefore, frequently taken short breaks are much better than infrequent long
breaks. Hence comfortable rest facilities should be provided for them.

Rest areas should not to be used to store any materials or equipment as their purpose is to
provide shelter away from wind, dust and rain. The rest facilities should also have adequate
number of chairs and tables, facility for getting boiled water and an arrangement of warming
food i.e. gas or electrical heating ring.

These days Mobile Welfare Units are widely available and used to serve the labourers with basic
facilities for their welfare. These are portable temporary units/cabins which can be easily moved
from one place to another. Mobile welfare units consist of following arrangements:

 Table and benched seating arrangement

 Drinking water supply

 Recirculating toilet and recirculating sink

 Clean Food consumption area

 Proper commercial heating facility

 Adequate ventilation
According to ‘S. Shirur and S. Torgal’ (Published in: Enhancing safety and health management
techniques in Indian construction industry), the Indian construction labour force is 7.5% of the
total world labour force but the professionals suffer from 16.4% of fateful global occupational
accidents. Presently, the Indian construction industry is quite large and complex. At par with the
development of construction industry, drawbacks in terms of health and safety aspects are also
witnessed quite frequently. In the Construction Industry, most of the labourers migrate from one
place to another, so most of them often don’t get basic facilities on construction site. That may
result in health hazards for them as well as it affects their families negatively. By providing the
above-mentioned welfare facilities on construction site, the promoters/developers can help in
improving the productivity of labourers and contribute to keep the site clean and hygienic.
Worker’s efficiency can be increased significantly with sufficient welfare facilities on a
construction site. Contractors must maintain the facilities throughout the project till the project
gets officially concluded.

LEARNIND OUTCOME 2:MANAGE

ENVIROMENT
DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS: FUNDAMENTALS AND A BRIEF
OVERVIEW
29.04.2022.
Water supply systems are one of the most important infrastructure buildings. The main purpose
of water supply systems is the distribution of water to all its users. Water must be delivered in
sufficient quantity and at acceptable pressure.
Requirements such as environmental protection, conservation of natural resources, and cost-
effectiveness of the system set additional conditions in the design, construction, and maintenance
of water supply systems.
GRAVITATIONAL AND PRESSURE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Water supply systems can be divided into two basic groups based on their functioning –
gravitational and pressure systems.
In a gravitational system, if terrain conditions allow, water is distributed from the reservoir,
which is located at a sufficient height, to the distribution area.
The pressure system uses pumps that provide sufficient water and pressure for distribution.
Usually, the water system consists of both gravitational and pressure parts. Considering
maintenance costs, gravitational systems are more acceptable.
TOPOLOGY OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
Considering the topology of the water supply system, we distinguish between branched and
annular networks.
The branched network distributes water through one or more distribution lines that end at certain
points.
An annular network allows water to be delivered to a point from multiple directions.
Often water supply systems consist of both annular and branched parts. The problem with the
branched network is the small flow of water (which includes a lower flow rate) at the ends of the
branches.
PURPOSE OF DESIGN
In addition to standard water consumption for industry and households, water supply systems
must be designed to meet fire protection requirements.
These requirements can significantly increase the cost of building and maintenance of water
supply systems.
Standard procedures and types of projects apply to the design of water supply systems as well as
to other buildings.
The project documentation can be in the form of a conceptual solution, conceptual design, main
and implementation project.
For each type of project, the concept, content, and detail are defined.
WHAT DOES THE DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS DEPEND ON?
The design of water supply systems significantly depends on spatial characteristics.
This includes topography and its influence on the pressure distribution in the pipe network.
Land use and ownership affect construction costs, while soil spatial characteristics affect
excavation costs.
Most water supply systems are installed on existing or planned roads, so problems with existing
communal infrastructures can occur during construction.
All this greatly affects the layout of the pipeline route and the appearance of the network.
COMPLEXITY OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Water supply systems are complex in themselves because they cover a large area.
They usually consist of multiple pipe loops, are regulated by nonlinear hydraulic equations, and
contain complex hydraulic devices such as valves and pumps.
They are affected by energy requirements due to draining and the trade-off between initial
investment and operating and maintenance costs during the project period.
In accordance with the project water supply quantities and characteristics of the water supply
network (material, location, and mode of operation of facilities on the network, topographic
conditions) it is always necessary to hydraulically dimension the water supply network so that it
meets the required water supply quantities and pressures.
Even with the use of simulation models, designers are still faced with a difficult task. One of the
most commonly used software for hydraulic calculations and modelling of water supply systems
is the software EPANET, developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency EPA.
Many software, including StudioARS Urbano Hydra, rely on EPANET for this purpose.
During the design and construction of the water supply network, it is necessary to overcome
frequent changes in the direction, diameter, and type of joints, and to perform branching of
pipelines. This is solved by using fittings.
The water supply network also contains plumbing fixtures – various devices that serve for its
proper functioning, management, and maintenance, such as valves, underground and
aboveground hydrants, air valves and sludge outlets, check valves, etc.
The water supply network is presented in the project by the situational plan, longitudinal profiles
of the pipeline, characteristic cross-sections of the pipeline, details, and schemes of nodes.
Node diagrams contain a schematic representation of nodes with fittings and plumbing fittings
and a tabular representation of the required elements in each node.
3D MODELS OF PIPE INFRASTRUCTURES
Recently, there has been a growing need for a 3D model of pipe infrastructures, including water
supply systems. BIM (Building Information Modeling), among other things, requires the
existence of a detailed 3D model.
The 3D BIM model is used to coordinate the project, which can identify shortcomings in the
project and possible collisions with other pipe infrastructures or other solid structures. By timely
detecting problems and intervention in the design phase, it is possible to significantly reduce
project costs and prevent violation of deadlines.
Modern software such as StudioARS Urbano can meet many of these requirements that water
supply system designers need.

WATER DEMAND IN WATER SUP Determination of water demand is indispensable when it

comes to the design of a proper water work project. An accurate estimation of water demand helps to
determine the quantities of water and moments when the water will be used therefore generating
various demand patterns. The demand arises mainly for residential, institutional, industrial and public
uses.

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The different types of water demands and their variations are briefly described in this article.

Contents: [show]

Types of Water Demands

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Water demands can be classified into:

1. Domestic Water Demand

2. Industrial Water Demand

3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand

4. Demand for Public

5. Fire Demand

6. Waste and Theft

1. Domestic Water Demand

Domestic water demand accounts for 55 to 60% of the total water consumption. As per IS 1172-
1983, the domestic consumption in India accounts for 135 lpcd (liters/capita/day)

2. Industrial Water Demand

The per capita consumption of industries is generally taken as 50 lpcd.

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3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand

On an average, per capita demand of 20 lpcd is required to meet institutional and commercial
water demand. For highly commercialized cities, this value can be 50 lpcd.

4. Public and Civil Use

The per capita consumption for public and civic use can be taken as 10 lpcd. This water is used
for road washing, public parks, sanitation etc.

5. Fire Demand

Per capita fire demand is ignored while calculating the total per capita water requirement of a
particular city because most areas have fire hydrants placed in the water main at 100 to 150
meters apart. The fire demand is generally taken as 1 lpcd.
6. Waste and Thefts

This consumption accounts for 55 lpcd. Even if the waterworks are managed with high
proficiency, a loss of 15% of total water consumption is expected.

Per Capita Demand (q)

Per capita demand is given by the relation:

Per capita demand is dependent on the following factors:

1. Water supply system

2. Cost of water

3. Climatic Conditions

4. Size of the city

5. Quality of water supply

6. Pressure in the water distribution system

 7. Metering policy and charging method

8. Industrial and commercial activities

9. Development of sewerage facilities

Variations in Water Demand

There are different variations in water demands which are calculated for the specific design of
pipe mains, service reservoirs, source of supply, distribution system and pumps.

1. Maximum Daily Consumption

Maximum Daily Consumption = 180% of Average Daily Demand = 1.8q

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Maximum daily consumption is the design water consumption for source of supply and pipe
mains.

2. Maximum Hourly Consumption

Maximum hourly consumption = 150% of avg. hourly demand of [Link]

= 1.5 x (Maximum daily demand/24)

= 1.5 x (1.8q/24) = 2.7 x (q/24)

Maximum hourly consumption = 2.7 x Annual Average hourly demand

3. Maximum Hourly Demand of maximum day

Maximum Hourly Demand of maximum day = 2.7q

4. Coincident demand or Coincident draft

Maximum daily demand plus fire demand gives the coincident draft. This design water
consumption is used for distribution system.

PLY

Factors Affecting the Rate of Demand of Water | Water Engineering

Article shared by:

For average Indian towns or cities the rate of demand of water varies from 100 to 300 litres per
head per day. The variation in the rate of demand of water is due to several factors which must
be carefully studied and analysed before fixing the rate of demand of water for a particular town
or city.

The various factors affecting the rate of demand of water are as listed below:

Factor # 1. Climatic Conditions:

The requirement of water is more at places having hot and dry climate than at places having cold
and humid climate. This is so because at places having hot and dry climate more water is
required for bathing, washing of clothes, air coolers, air conditioning, lawn watering, gardening,
etc.

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Similarly the requirement of water is more in summer than in winter. Further in extremely cold
climates water may be wasted due to taps being always kept open to avoid freezing of pipes,
which may result in increased rate of consumption.

Factor # 2. Cost of Water:

The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers may also affect the rate of demand of water.
If the rates at which water is supplied are high, lesser quantity of water may be consumed by the
people, and vice versa. However, the general observation is that the consumption of water
reduces only slightly as the cost is increased.

Factor # 3. Pressure in the Distribution System:

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The consumption of water increases with the increase in the distribution pressure. This is due to
increase in loss and waste of water at high pressure. For example, an increase of pressure from
196 kN/m2 (2 kg/cm2) to 294 kN/m2 (3 kg/cm2) may lead to an increase in consumption of water
by about 25 to 30 per cent.
Factor # 4. Economic Status of Consumers:

The consumption rate of water is directly dependent upon the economic status of the consumers.
Rich and upper class people generally consume more water due to their better standard of living.
On the other hand middle class people have average rate of consumption of water while the poor
slum dwellers have a much lower rate of water consumption.

Factor # 5. Number of Commercial Establishments and Industries:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

In general the presence of commercial and other establishments and industries in a town or city
would increase the rate of demand of water. The rate of demand of water would further increase
with the increase in the number of such establishments and industries. However, if the industries
develop their own water supply system, then there may not be much increase in the rate of
demand of water for the public water supply system.

Factor # 6. Method of Charging—Metered or Unmetered Water Supply System (or Policy

of Metering):

The public water supply system may be either metered or unmetered. In the case of metered
water supply, meters are fitted at the head of the individual house connections, which record the
quantity of water actually consumed by the consumers. The consumers are charged for the actual
quantity of water consumed by them as recorded by the meters.

As such with metered water supply the consumers use water carefully with minimum wastage,
resulting in a reduced water use. On the other hand in the case of unmetered water supply the
consumers are charged at a fixed monthly flat rate irrespective of the quantity of water consumed
by them.

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Thus with unmetered water supply the consumers are tempted to use water more liberally
resulting in a lot of wastage of water. The installation of meters therefore generally reduces the
rate of demand of water.
However, there are several points for and against the installation of meters in a water
supply system which are given below:

Points for the Installation of Meters:

(i) The consumer is required to pay only for the quantity of water he actually uses.

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(ii) Wastage of water is reduced.

(iii) The reduction in consumption of water results in reducing loads on water purification plants,
pumps, sewers, etc.

(iv) The points of leakage may be more easily located.

(v) The careful consumer pays less and the careless consumer pays more.

(vi) When the quantity of water available is limited and the cost of operation is high, metering of
water supplies provides the optimum utilisation of water.

Points against the Installation of Meters:

(i) There is appreciable loss of pressure through meters which adds to the cost of pumping.

(ii) Metering is quite expensive because a lot of money is to be spent to buy, to install, to read
and to maintain the meters.

(iii) The limited use of water may result in unhygienic conditions and diseases.

(iv) Gardening is diminished which affects the economy and the general appearance of the town
or city.

(v) The money required to be spent on meters might better be spent on improvement of water
supply scheme.

(vi) Wastage of water can be more economically checked by inspection than by meters.

(vii) Cost and space required for setting up of meters may be prohibitive and are certainly
restrictive.

Factor # 7. Quality of Water:

If the quality of the supplied water is good, it will be consumed more, because the consumers
will consider it safe for use and they will use it liberally for various purposes. Moreover, when
good quality water will be supplied, the consumers will not use water from other sources such as
private wells, hand pumps, etc. Thus in general the rate of demand of water increases with the
improvement in the quality of the supplied water.

Factor # 8. Sewerage System:

If a town or city is provided with a sewerage system, more water will be required for civic or
public purposes. The residents of this town or city will also require more water for flushing
sanitary units such as urinals, water closets, etc. Thus provision of sewerage system for a town or
city increases the rate of demand of water.

Factor # 9. Size of Town or City:

In general bigger is the town or city, higher is the rate of demand of water, and vice versa. This is
so because big towns or cities are invariably provided with sewerage system for which large
quantity of water is required. The large quantity of water is also required for various other civic
or public purposes for maintaining clean and healthy environment in big towns or cities.

Further the high standard of living for the residents of a big town or city also leads to a higher
rate of demand of water due to large quantity of water being required for domestic use. Table 2.9
gives the average rates of demand of water for the Indian towns or cities of various populations.
However, the presence of a water-consuming industry in a town or city may result in a higher
rate of demand of water, even if the town or city is small.
Factor # 10. System of Supply of Water:

The water may be supplied either intermittently, i.e., for limited periods during certain fixed
hours of the day, or continuously for all the 24 hours of the day. It is claimed that with
intermittent supply of water the rate of demand of water is less, because the water being
available for a shorter duration the leakage losses and the wastage of water by various reasons
are considerably reduced.

However, in several cases with intermittent supply of water there is no much reduction in
the rate of demand of water because of the following two reasons:

(i) With intermittent supply of water there is a tendency of many consumers to store water for
use during non-supply period. However, this previously stored water is thrown away in order to
collect fresh water when the supply is resumed. This results in waste of water.

(ii) During non-supply period the water taps are kept open and when the supply starts the water
flowing through the open taps remains unattended, which results in waste of water.

FORECASTING POPULATION

Population forecasting is defined as the method of determining the expected population for a
particular design period of a water supply system with the help of the study and analysis of
future events and available records.

The population is an important parameter that is determined for the design of the water system of
a particular area. Water supply systems are designed for a population expected for a certain
design period instead of taking into consideration the present population of the area.

There are several mathematical methods that can be used to determine the population for a
design period.

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Contents: [show]

Population Forecasting Methods

The population forecasting methods require the values of present and past population records to
undergo the calculation. The local census records of a particular area provide the value of present
and past populations.

The two categories of methods used for population forecasting are:

1. Short Term Methods

2. Long Term Methods

The short term methods include:

1. Arithmetic Progression

2. Geometric Progression

3. Iller Bankasi Method

4. Decreasing Rate of Growth method

5. Graphical Extension Method

The long term methods include:

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1. Comparative Method

2. Ratio and Correlation Method

3. Component Method

4. Logistic Method

Short Term Methods for Population Forecasting

The different short term methods for forecasting population are:

[Link] Increase Method

This method is applied to areas where it is found that the rate of increase of population with time
is constant i.e. dP/dt = Constant;
If, Pn = Population of an area after any time 't' or Population after 'n' decades, Po = Last known
Population of that area; n = number of decades ( 10 years = 1 decade); X' = average increase in
population.

Pn = Po + nX' (Eq.1)

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2. Geometric Progression Method

The method is used for the condition dP/dt = Kg. P. Where, Kg is called as the geometric
constant, P is the population.

Kg = [(LnP'' -LnP')/(t'' - t')] (Eq.2)

Then the future population Pn is given by,

Ln Pn = Ln Po + K'g(tn - to); (Eq.3)

K'g is Average of Kg which is equal to below relation.

Eq.4

3. Iller Bankasi Method or Geometric Increase Method

This method is employed in a area where the population is rapidly increasing. Here the future
population Pn is given by,

Eq.5

Here, r = Assumed growth rate in percentage, n is in decades and Po is the last known population
of the city.

The value of 'r' is calculated differently based on the data available.

[Link] Initial Population P' and Final Population P'' are given, then
 Eq.6

2. Arithmetic Increase method

r = ( r1 + r2 + .... rn)/n Eq.7

3. Geometric Method

Eq.8

4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

The method is applied to a city that owns a limiting saturation population. In this type, the rate of
growth is a function of its population deficit. That means,

dP/dt = Kd(S-P) Eq.9

Where, P is the population, S is the saturation population and Kd is the constant.

Then, Kd and Kd average is given by,

Eq.10

Eq.11

Then, future population is given by,

Eq.12

5. Graphical Extension Method

In this method, the population of the past few decades is plotted in the graph correctly following
a proper scale. The obtained population curve is extended to obtain the future population. The
extension of the curve is performed by a person who has proper experience and judgement.

Long Term Methods for Population Forecasting

The long term methods for forecasting population are:

1. Comparative Method

In this method, population curve of different cities with similar population growth is studied. The
different factors that are taken into consideration are:

 The likeness of Economic Base

 Proximity of geography

 Access to similar transportation systems

2. Ratio and Correlation Method

The method works based on the concept that the ratio of the population of the city studied
compared to a larger group continues to change in the future similar to the manner that has
occurred in past years. The concept is explained in the figure below.

Ratio and Correlation method

3. Component Method

The population change is observed due to birth, death and migration. So estimation of these
factors helps to understand the increase or decrease of the population. During calculation,
migration is estimated first followed by the estimation of births and deaths.

4. Logistic Method

This method is also called as mathematical curve fitting. The method follows an assumption that
the rate of growth at low population with a rate that is declining as the given city approach some
value of limiting population.

In order to proceed with this method, last three census is taken. If so the population is calculated
by the formula,

Eq.13

S is the saturation population and m and c are constants

Eq.14

The Saturation population is calculated by the formula,

Eq.15

Sources of Fresh Water in Environmentl Engg.

By: Haseeb Jamal / On: Mar 24, 2017 / NOTES

Flowchart of the sources of clean drinking water

WasteWater Treatment Disposal & Management

The quantity of water required for a community depends upon:

1. Forecasted population

2. Types and variation in demand (e.g. seasonal variation)

3. Maximum demand (Per day/Per month)

4. Fire demand

5. Rural demand and supplies

6. Appropriate / Available technology

Main sources of water are

 Surface water sources: Lakes impounding reservoirs, streams, seas, irrigation canals

 Ground water sources: Springs, wells, infiltration wells

Above are the common sources of clean drinking water, other different sources of drinking water
are

Merits of Surface Sources

Surface sources of water, such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, offer several merits for various
purposes. Here are some of the advantages of using surface water sources:

1. Abundance:

Surface water sources are typically abundant and readily available in many regions. Rivers,
lakes, and reservoirs are natural water bodies that can hold large volumes of water, making them
a reliable source for water supply systems, irrigation, and industrial purposes.

2. Accessibility:

Surface water sources are often easily accessible, especially in comparison to other water sources
like groundwater. They are usually located near populated areas and can be tapped into through
intake structures, dams, or water treatment plants, enabling convenient access to water for
domestic, agricultural, and industrial use.

3. Natural Treatment:

Surface water sources often undergo natural treatment processes as water flows through various
ecosystems. These processes include filtration, aeration, and natural biological purification,
which can help improve water quality. While additional treatment is still necessary to meet
drinking water standards, surface water sources often require less treatment compared to other
sources like groundwater.

4. Storage and Regulation:

Surface water sources, particularly reservoirs created by damming rivers, provide the advantage
of water storage. Water can be collected during periods of high rainfall or snowmelt and stored
for later use during dry seasons or droughts. This storage capacity helps to mitigate water
scarcity issues and supports water management and irrigation for agriculture.

5. Recreational and Aesthetic Value:

Surface water sources often offer recreational opportunities and aesthetic value to communities.
People can engage in activities such as swimming, boating, fishing, and water sports in rivers
and lakes, promoting physical and mental well-being. Additionally, the presence of water bodies
enhances the beauty of landscapes, making them visually appealing and attracting tourism.

6. Ecological Support:

Surface water sources sustain diverse aquatic ecosystems, providing habitats for various plants,
animals, and organisms. These ecosystems contribute to biodiversity, support fisheries, and play
a vital role in maintaining the ecological balance of surrounding areas. Protecting and managing
surface water sources can help preserve these ecosystems and their associated benefits.

While surface water sources offer numerous advantages, it is essential to note that they can also
face challenges, such as pollution, water scarcity during droughts, and the need for proper
management to ensure sustainable use. Water quality monitoring, pollution control measures,
and sustainable water resource management practices are crucial to harnessing the benefits of
surface water sources effectively.
Merits of groundwater sources

1. Being underground, the groundwater supply has less chance of being contaminated by
atmospheric pollution.

2. The water quality is good and better than the surface source.

3. Prevention of water through evaporation is ensured and thus loss of water is reduced.

4. Ground water supply is available and can even be maintained in deserted areas.

5. The land above ground water source can be used for other purposes and has less
environmental impact.

Demerits of ground water source

1. The water obtained from ground water source is always pressure less. A mump is
required to take the water out and is then again pumped for daily use.

2. The transport/transmission of ground water is a problem and expensive work. The water
has to be surfaced or underground conduits are required.

3. Boring and excavation for finding and using groundwater is expensive work.

4. The modeling, analysis, and calculation of groundwater is less reliable and based on past
experience, thus posing a high risk of uncertainty.

Demerits of Surface Sources of Water

Surface sources of water, such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, also present certain challenges and
drawbacks. Here are some of the demerits or disadvantages associated with using surface water
sources:

1. Contamination and Pollution:

Surface water sources are susceptible to contamination from various human and natural
activities. Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal can introduce
pollutants into surface water bodies, affecting water quality. This contamination can include
harmful chemicals, pathogens, sediment, and nutrients, leading to health risks and ecological
damage.
2. Seasonal Variability and Droughts:

Surface water sources can be significantly influenced by seasonal changes and variations in
precipitation patterns. During dry seasons or droughts, rivers and lakes may experience reduced
water levels and flow rates, making it challenging to meet water demand for various purposes.
Dependence on surface water alone without alternative water sources can pose significant water
supply challenges during periods of scarcity.

3. Water Treatment Requirements:

While surface water undergoes natural purification processes, it typically requires treatment to
meet safe drinking water standards. Surface water often contains contaminants that necessitate
comprehensive treatment processes, including filtration, disinfection, and chemical treatment, to
ensure its safety for human consumption. These treatment procedures can be complex and costly
to implement.

4. Vulnerability to Natural Disasters:

Surface water sources can be vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and
landslides. Extreme weather events can result in water contamination, infrastructure damage, and
disruption of water supply systems. Proper planning and infrastructure resilience measures are
necessary to mitigate the risks associated with natural disasters and maintain water availability
and quality.

5. Water Rights and Conflicts:

Surface water sources are often shared among multiple users and stakeholders, leading to water
rights disputes and conflicts. Competing demands for water from agriculture, industries,
municipalities, and ecosystems can result in conflicts over water allocation, particularly during
periods of water scarcity. Effective water governance and management mechanisms are essential
to address these conflicts and ensure equitable access to water resources.

6. Environmental Impact:

Large-scale water infrastructure projects, such as dams and reservoirs, can have significant
environmental impacts. These projects may alter natural river flows, disrupt aquatic ecosystems,
and affect wildlife habitats. They can also result in the displacement of local communities and
cause social and ecological changes downstream. Careful consideration of environmental and
social factors is necessary when planning and implementing surface water infrastructure projects.

While surface water sources have disadvantages, they can still be effectively managed and
utilized by employing appropriate water treatment technologies, pollution control measures,
sustainable water management practices, and stakeholder engagement. Integrating multiple water
sources, including groundwater and rainwater harvesting, can help diversify water supplies and
reduce reliance on surface water alone, thereby addressing some of the challenges associated
with surface sources of water.

WATER TREATMENT SUPPLY

Water Treatment: Types, Methods, Steps of Treatment and Importance

Last updated on Aug 10, 2023

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Overview

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The survival of all living beings is dependent on the nutrients of water. Without it, one can only
survive for a few days. The bodily operations require water for the proper functioning of the
organs, tissues, cells, and so on. Water is responsible for carrying oxygen to the brain and
nutrients to the body. All the toxins present in the body are flushed with water.
Water is one of the most important and basic amenities yet there are billions of people who still
don’t have access to pure drinking water. The continuous decline in the availability of pure
drinking water is a rising concern all over the world. To ensure the quality of water is accessible
to the people, certain water treatment plants are set up that help in purifying the water.
Know more about Quality of Water here.

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Water Treatment

Water treatment means the cleansing of water through various phases to be available for end-use
by the people. The treated water is then used for various purposes like irrigation, industrial water
supply, drinking, river flow maintenance, or any other such uses. The treatment of water removes
harmful contaminants and compounds or the concentration of these is reduced for public use.
This treatment is mandatory to promote human health and its uses for drinking and irrigation.

The water contaminated with feces of humans and animals pose a great threat to the public
because of the presence of microbial elements in them that cause various diseases. Feces are the
main source of viruses, pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. The destruction or removal
of such substances from the water is essential for it to be used by humans. Reactive chemical
agents like suspended solids are used in the process of purification of water. These agents help in
removing bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, iron, and manganese.

Know more about Wastewater here.

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Methods Of Water Treatment

Water is naturally a pure substance containing hydrogen and oxygen. However, the distribution
and supply of water come in contact with various organic minerals, man made pollutants, and
chemicals. This makes water unfavorable for drinking purposes as it contains deadly viruses,
bacteria, and other dangerous agents.

Different methods of water treatment are set up to make drinking water accessible. Below are
some of the methods of water treatment.

o Coagulation/ Flocculation
Coagulation is the process of adding alum, liquid sulfate, to untreated or raw water. After
completion of the process, dirt particles coagulate in the water or stick together. Flocs are formed
by large dirt particles and can be easily removed by filtration or setting. Coagulation methods
include ionic layer compressions, surface complexation, and charge neutralization, sweep
coagulation, and polymeric bridging.

Flocculation is what allows the coagulated water to mix with the particles that collide to form
further flocs.

Read more about the Quality and Characteristics of Sewage, here.

o Sedimentation

During the treatment process, flocs and water make their way into the sedimentation basins. In
these basins, water moves slowly allowing the flocs to settle at the bottom. The accumulated
flocs are known as sludge and are carried to the drying lagoons. Storing such water for a couple
of hours will allow the sedimentation of dense and large particles like silt and sands, microbes,
and smaller particles. Settling time of 1 to 2 days will help remove larger particles and microbes
like algae and clay.

o Filtration

Filtration helps in removing the particles as the water passes through a filter. These filters are
composed of sand and gravel or crushed anthracite. Filtration combines all the dangerous
impurities and particles that float on the water. This helps boost the effectiveness of disinfection.
Filters are regularly serviced by backwashing for better filtration.

o Disinfection

Water is disinfected before it makes its way to the distribution system. Disinfection removes
disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Chlorine is better known to help in the
disinfection of water. It includes oxidizing agents that instantly remove all the bacteria in water.

Know more about the Design of Sewers, here.

o Oxidation
Inorganic contaminants like iron, manganese are removed by the process of chemical oxidation
and it further aids in the removal of coagulated particles to destroy odor-causing and taste
compounds. It is often used before coagulation, adsorption, and sedimentation for efficient
removal of particulates, inorganics, taste, or odor. Oxidants are injected in the form of liquid or
gas.

o Adsorption

The adsorption process removes both organic and inorganic contaminants from water.
Adsorption forms on the surface by the accumulation of a solid called adsorbents. They include
stationary media like metal oxide, ion exchange, and activated carbon. Flocculation forms floc
that can adsorb both inorganic and organic carbon like arsenic. Activated carbon helps in
removing hundreds of organic contaminants.

o Fluoridation

Fluoridation is used mainly in communities as it treats water supplies to bring a balance in the
concentrated free fluoride ions. This is done till an optimal level is reached which helps avoid
dental cavities.

Learn more about Sewage, here.

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Steps Of Water Treatment

Large scale water treatment plant follows the below steps for urban water supply. These are as
follows: –

1) Screening
Screens are used to protect treatment plant units to help in the efficiency of operations. Screens
remove large floating or suspended solids in the process of inflow. Materials like leaves, paper,
twigs, and other debris are removed so as to avoid equipment or plant damage. There are two
types of screens.

o Coarse screens: These are large and heavy screens used to minimize large materials like
fish and logs from entering the water treatment plant. They help in the proper functioning
of the mechanical equipment.

o Fine screens: These are used to avoid blockage in the pipes at the treatment plant. Solids
that are caught in the pipes are removed by jet water and are taken for disposal.

2) Aeration

Aeration takes place after the screening process. Water becomes aerated after it has been
exposed in order to take in oxygen from the air. Harmful soluble gases like CO2, hydrogen
sulfide are expelled by aeration.

You might also be interested in learning more about Water Supply.

3) Coagulation And Flocculation

Coagulation is used after aeration to remove any remaining fine particles suspended in the water.
Coagulant chemicals are mixed in the water for further cleansing.

4) Sedimentation

Large flocs which are spread on the floor of a tank are settled out by the process of
sedimentation. The accumulated material is called sludge which is taken for proper disposal after
the process.

5) Chlorination

To further disinfect the water after sedimentation a chemical called chlorine is used to help
remove pathogenic microorganisms. The remaining chlorine is known as residual chlorine which
gets through the process of the distribution system.

Check out this article on Solid Waste Management here.

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Importance Of Water Treatment

The availability of pure water is of utmost importance in society. The water treatment process
caters to this by supplying suitable water for industries or individuals. Only when the
contaminants are removed from the water can they be used and accessible to everyone. Several
processes like filtration and disinfection are used to purify water.

Water is the key element to an individual’s survival and without water survival is difficult.
Recent global research conducted showed that many deaths take place mainly due to poor quality
of water causing various types of diseases. Hence, it is vital to ensure the public has access to
pure drinking water. Water treatment industries are being set up in large numbers to help in the
purification of water thus saving the lives of the people.

Fatal diseases like typhoid and cholera are caused by impure water alone which can be life-
threatening for individuals. Desalination helps in avoiding the scarcity of water faced by the
people where they do not have access to water. The source of seawater is unlimited and can be
utilized accordingly and be provided to the people after getting salt content removed and
converted to safe drinking water.
Purposes Of Water Treatment

Water treatment’s main objective is to remove the impure residuals of the water to make it
accessible for drinking. These impurities are responsible for various types of diseases among
humans.

The main purpose of water treatment is to ensure the public has safe access to drinking water
devoid of any contaminants. At the community level, untreated or raw water is obtained through
an underground aquifer or through lakes, or rivers. Once obtained, it is then taken for proper
treatment and to remove harmful substances present in the water.

Water treatment plants are maintained to minimize high radiation levels in a facility. Impurities
and corrosion may get highly radioactive and have to be removed in order to avoid these harmful
substances from entering the water and disperse throughout.

Also, read more about Disposing of Sewage Effluents, here.

Raw Water Treatment

Raw water must be treated before use in utility processes. The treatment removes harmful
substances like suspended and dissolved solids and other kinds of impurities that are present in
large numbers. Treated raw water can be used for various purposes like cooling water, rinsing
water, purified, and even drinking water. The process of raw water treatment includes:

o Reverse osmosis: Water flows at high speed across a membrane leaving only water and
some unwanted residues behind. Major pollutants like iron, manganese, pesticides, can be
expelled by reverse osmosis.

o Turbidity: Suspended particles cause turbidity in the water. Many suspended particles
arise from turbidity which is used to measure the quality of water. Turbidity is present in
large volumes mainly due to rainfall, bank erosion, and so on.

o Ultrafiltration: Water is treated with a screen filter before the actual high-pressure
filtration through a membrane. This method separates the contaminants from the water.

Check out Importance of Water Essay here!

Types Of Water Treatment Plants

On the basis of the types of water industries, they can be divided into 3 major categories.

o Water purification

o Wastewater treatment

o Desalination

o Water purification: Natural water may not contain harmful elements still the water is
sent for purification in order to become drinkable. Natural and purified water has a
similar appearance but is different in taste and smell as there are plenty of bacteria
present in the natural water. Water pollution is on a rise and thus purification of water is
mandatory everywhere.

o Wastewater treatment: The wastewater treatment industry is set up to control the flow
of wastewater in the society or community. Also, these industries help convert
wastewater to become accessible to the public mainly for irrigation purposes, or
fertilization.

o Desalination: Desalination implies converting salt or seawater into drinkable water or

pure water. Seawater is easily accessible and available across giving a rise in the setting
up of desalination industries.

LEARNING OUTCOME 3:SUPERVISE WORK

METHODS OF SETTING OUT

Site Setting Out Survey | Field Setting Out | Surveying Layout

By: Haseeb Jamal / On: Jul 19, 2017

The method of setting out is the reverse of the surveying process. The process involves the
positions and levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the construction plans to be
established on the ground by various techniques and instruments.

In the field of civil engineering, accurate surveying and setting out is essential for the successful
execution of construction projects. Setting out involves transferring the dimensions and locations
from engineering designs and plans to the actual site. This process ensures that the construction
aligns with the intended specifications and helps maintain precision throughout the project.
Several methods are employed in setting out surveys, each suited to different types of projects
and terrain. Here, we will discuss some common methods of setting out surveys used in civil
engineering, focusing on surveying and leveling techniques.

See Also: Setting Out Circular Curves

Methods of Setting Out Survey

 1. Setting out buildings by coordinates

2. Setting out with theodolite and level

3. Checking verticality

4. Setting out and alignment in steel-framed buildings

5. Alignment and verticality in formwork

6. Control and calculation for route surveying

1. Chain and Tape Method:

The chain and tape method is one

of the oldest and simplest
techniques for setting out surveys.
It involves measuring distances
using a chain or tape measure and
establishing right angles using the
3-4-5 triangle method. This
method is suitable for smaller projects with relatively simple geometries, such as boundary
demarcations and small building layouts.

2. Total Station Method:

Total station surveying is a modern technique that combines electronic theodolites and electronic
distance measurement (EDM) instruments. It enables accurate measurements of angles and
distances, along with the ability to record data electronically. With the total station method,
surveyors can quickly establish reference points, measure distances, and set out precise
coordinates on the site. This method is commonly used in building construction, road alignments,
and infrastructure projects.

3. GPS/GNSS Method:

Global Positioning System (GPS) or Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology is
widely used in setting out surveys. GPS receivers receive signals from multiple satellites to
determine accurate positions on the Earth's surface. This method allows surveyors to establish
control points, measure distances, and calculate coordinates with high accuracy over large areas.
The GPS/GNSS method is particularly beneficial for projects that involve vast terrains or require
rapid data collection.

4. Optical Leveling:

Optical leveling is employed to establish vertical control on construction sites. It utilizes a

leveling instrument, such as a dumpy level or an automatic level, along with a leveling staff.
Surveyors measure the difference in height between reference points, known as benchmarks,
using the principle of line of sight. Optical leveling is crucial for setting out structures with
specific elevation requirements, such as roads, pipelines, and buildings.

5. Laser Scanning:

Laser scanning, also known as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), is an advanced method
used for detailed and comprehensive surveys. It involves emitting laser pulses and measuring the
time it takes for the reflected light to return. By capturing millions of data points, laser scanners
create highly accurate 3D models of existing structures and terrain. Laser scanning is beneficial
for complex projects that require precise as-built measurements, such as industrial plants,
historical sites, and large-scale infrastructure developments.

It's important to note that the choice of setting out method depends on various factors, including
project size, complexity, accuracy requirements, and available resources. A skilled surveyor will
assess these factors and select the most appropriate method for each project. Accurate setting out
surveys are crucial for ensuring that construction aligns with design intent, minimizing errors,
and optimizing project efficiency. By employing the right techniques, civil engineers can achieve
precise and successful project execution.

Setting out Survey works also include

Computations and setting out Methods for:

1. Simple Circular Curves

2. Compound Curves

3. Reverse curves
 4. Transition curves

5. Vertical curves

6. Setting out of horizontal alignment

7. Setting out of vertical alignment

8. Setting out of cross-sections

9. Setting out of bends

Setting Out Tools and Equipment

1. Pegs

2. Tape measure/measuring wire

3. Ranging rods

4. Triangle sets

5. Cross staff

6. Optical square

7. Gradient template

8. Straight-edge in combination with spirit level

9. Dumpy level

10. Water manometer

11. Tube water level

12. Camberboard

What is the Site Instruction in Construction?

6 min read
Understanding construction terminology is essential. Not only do construction managers need to
be familiar with terms like site instruction in construction, but everyone in the construction
industry, including but not limited to the general contractor, designers, and engineers, should be
as well.

What is a Site Instruction in Construction?

A site instruction is a formal instruction issued by the consultant to a general contractor or

general contractor to other contractors or subcontractors with instructions and directives. These
instructions must be written and formalized because they go outside the scope of the original
project or plan and hence require additional ‘instruction.’

Site instructions are outside the scope of the original contract and require additional instructions
for crews to complete. General contractors delegate site instructions to subcontractors in order to
expand the scope of work, purchase or test new material, or address defect issues and rework.

When Site Instruction in construction is issued/requested?

  When making a change to what is in the approved shop drawing, the project head should
issue site instructions.

 If an error or challenge is found in the working drawing, the consultant must either issue
a new drawing or issue site instruction on how to proceed.

 When proposing a solution to an unforeseen problem or challenge on site that may affect
time, procedure, or cost, the project head should issue site instructions.

 A project head can issue a notice of delay in the form of a site instruction.

 After an item of work has been satisfactorily completed, a site manager/contractor should
get approval from consultants/regulatory agencies to proceed. The consultant/regulatory
agency, for example, should provide an instruction to the contractor to proceed with
concreting after checking the arrangement and placements of reinforcements and
formwork.

 When asked to do something with which he is not comfortable or familiar, a site

manager/contractor should request written site instruction.

 A site manager/contractor should request site instruction to proceed and use material or
procedure that he has never used before.

Why do site instructions matter?

Site instructions in construction are essential for projects and companies in the industry.

Logistically, they are essential to the progress of projects. A contractor who is mostly responsible
for the asset’s safe delivery must have a mechanism for pushing changes down the chain of
command. If a subcontractor falls behind schedule or the client requests a change from the
original plan, the contractor must have a formal method in place to ensure that other contractors
and subcontractors are informed and compensated for this change – and that the new instruction
is properly executed.

Because site instructions frequently fall outside the original scope of the contract, they aren’t
always ‘covered’ by it.
The additional instruction, which includes guidelines on the nature and scope of additional work
required, ensures that the work is covered under what is essentially a “supplemental” contract.

Contractors and subcontractors alike might fall into a grey area of work if site instructions aren’t
or weren’t issued, where claims and disputes emerge due to the ambiguity of the work required,
whose fault it is/was, and how many individuals need to be paid or compensated.

What needs to be in site instruction in construction?

Maintaining a tight and standardized site instruction format is essential for record keeping,
disputes, and professionalism. The format of your site instruction may differ slightly from the
example above based on the type of work you do and the type of instruction issued, but the bones
of the site instruction will be basically the same.

You should include some basic logistical information in your site instructions that will act
as evidence and organizational markers, such as:

 A form number for that particular site instruction

 The date of the instruction

 The type of instruction (contractor, subcontractor etc.)

Aside from these obviously important details, your site instruction must include the necessary
detail for your records as well as the site instruction receiver’s understanding of what is required
of them. These additional details are as follows:

 A description of the instruction that is not within the scope of the contract.

 The reason for requesting work that is not within the scope of the contract.

 Photos of the work area (defects, etc.) are essential for providing proof later on.

 Name the relevant subcontractor or supplier to whom the site instruction has been issued.

 Label and document the forecasted resources needed.

 Final checklist questions on whether an official site instruction is warranted and required.
  The engineer/foreman and senior project engineer sign off on the instruction’s actual
issuing.

Creating and sharing site instructions in this format will help to streamline and solidify the
approval process and the strength of your records.

Documentation is essential in the industry since all contractors and subcontractors rely on it at
the end of the day.

What do you do after receiving site instruction?

Because site instructions in construction are formal documents, the site manager should
take the following actions after receiving them:

 Discuss and analyse the impact of the instruction on project delivery time, procedure, and
cost with the project team.

 If necessary, the contractor should send a formal response to the instructor regarding the
impact of the instruction. It is worth noting that some instructions are very common in
construction and do not require much thought from an experienced site manager.

 The site manager should start to implement all approved corrections in accordance with
the instructions.

 After all of the corrections have been made, the consultant should be invited to check that
the instruction was followed correctly, and then they will approve and let the contractor
move on to the next item of work.

Conclusion

A site instruction is a formal instruction issued from the Client / Consultant / Head Contract to
contractors working on a project. Architect instructions, client instructions, and site instructions
are examples of instruction types. Site Instruction is issued as CVI (Confirmation of Verbal
Instruction) / Variation Order (VO):

Design Change that has Architectural / Structural Implication.

1. Construction violation when not complying with relevant Code of Practice

 2. Site Instruction for Quality Breach

3. Site Instruction for Safety Breach

Each Site Instruction is to be evaluated for both cost & Time impact on the project.

In contract, Resident Engineer is the authorized person to issue SI/CVI/VO.

Construction site records and registers

Construction sites are complex, continually changing and potentially dangerous. Ensuring they
are efficiently and effectively managed and that they remain safe requires meticulous record
keeping.

Some of the records and registers kept on site may be required by statutory bodies such as
the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), or the building control body, others may be maintained
for the convenience of the contractor.

Records that are kept on site might include:

 Accident book.

 Asbestos register.

 Asset register.

 Construction phase plan.

 Contract register.

 COSHH data and assessment sheets.

 Dangerous and explosive substances register.

 Details of underground and overhead services.

 Emergency plans.

 Existing health and safety files.

 F10 form.
  Fire equipment inspection register.

 Scaffolding register.

 Test records and certificates.

 LOLER Inspection register (Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations).

 Manual handling assessment (MAC).

 Plants checks.

 Records of excavation inspections.

 Records of inspections of scaffold, working platforms and so on.

 Records of permits to work.

 Risk assessments and method statements.

 Safety equipment registers.

 Site induction and training registers.

 Site rules.

 Site visitors book.

 Site Waste Management Plan.

 Verification of competence, such as Construction Skills Certification Scheme

CSCS cards.

Related articles on Designing Buildings

 Accident book.

 Accident report.

 Asbestos register.

 Asset register.

 Construction phase plan.

  Contract register.

 COSHH

 Health and safety file.

 F10 form.

 Manual handling.

 Mobilisation.

 Permit to work

 Risk assessments and method statements.

 Site induction

 Site rules.

 Site Waste Management Plan.

 Types of register.

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 Add a comment

 Send us feedback

Comments

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from any existing comments by inserting a horizontal line.

Construction site records and registers are important documentation tools used to record and
track various aspects of a construction project. They serve as a means of communication,
evidence of compliance, and reference for future use. Here are some common types of
construction site records and registers:
1. Daily Construction Log: This log is maintained on a daily basis and records activities, weather
conditions, workforce attendance, equipment used, and any significant events or incidents that
occur on the construction site.

2. Material Receiving Register: This register tracks the receipt of construction materials on the
site. It includes details such as the date of delivery, supplier information, quantity received, and
any discrepancies or issues observed.

3. Inspection and Test Records: These records document the inspections, tests, and quality
checks conducted during various stages of construction. They may include records for concrete
testing, soil testing, structural inspections, electrical inspections, and more.

4. Workforce Attendance Register: This register records the attendance of workers on the
construction site. It helps track the number of workers present, their working hours, and any
leave or absences.

5. Site Safety Records: These records focus on documenting safety-related activities and
incidents. They may include records of safety meetings, safety inspections, accident reports,
near-miss incidents, and safety training conducted on-site.

6. Change Order Log: This log tracks any changes or modifications made to the original
construction plans or scope of work. It includes details such as the date of change, reason for
change, parties involved, and impact on cost or schedule.

7. Equipment Maintenance Log: This log records the maintenance and servicing of construction
equipment and machinery. It helps track the maintenance schedule, repairs, and any issues
observed.

It's important to note that the specific records and registers maintained on a construction site may
vary depending on the project requirements, local regulations, and the policies of the
construction company or project owner.

Thanks, that seems to be more of an article than a comment, feel free to create a new article
under a related title..
If you did not write the comment or article yourself though, please to list a reference or source
who did. Thanks.

LEARNING OUTCOME 4:ALLOCATE CIVIL ENGINEEERIN RESOURCES

What is Resource Allocation? A Complete Resource Allocation Guide

Resource allocation is all about making the most of limited resources, whether they are time,
money, or materials. It's a critical skill for businesses, organizations, and individuals, as it can
help them achieve their goals more efficiently and effectively. Moreover, resource allocation
involves strategic decision-making, collaboration, and innovation, as people work together to
find creative solutions to complex problems. Hence, let's dive in and discover the power of
resource allocation and how it helps businesses achieve the desired outcome.

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85% of the learners achieved their training objectives within 9 months of course completion*

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Resource allocation helps various organizations prioritize their goals, optimize their operations,
and reduce waste and inefficiencies. Discover the amazing benefits of resource allocation for
businesses with this blog post, and how it’s changing the business game for the better!

 What is Resource Allocation?

 Resource Allocation Tools

 Best Resource Allocation Methods and Techniques

  Benefits of Resource Allocation

 Challenges of Resource Allocation

 How to Allocate Resources on a Project

 Conclusion

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What is Resource Allocation?

Resource allocation is the process of assigning and distributing resources, including personnel,
equipment, and materials, to specific tasks and activities within a project. Effective resource
allocation is critical to achieving project success and requires careful resource planning and
resource management.

Key Elements of Resource Allocation

 Identifying Resources – The identification of resources means figuring out what type of
resources, such as money, people, tools, and materials, are required for a project.

 Estimating Resource Requirements – Based on the project’s objectives and scope,

project managers must estimate the number and duration of each resource required.

 Scheduling Resources – Scheduling resources defines the process of deciding how many
resources to allocate to tasks as well as the order and length of each job.

 Monitoring and Modifying Resources – To stay on schedule, project managers must

constantly keep an eye on resource consumption.

A construction project that requires the project manager to arrange personnel, supplies, and
equipment in order to finish the project structure on time and within budget could serve as an
illustration of resource allocation.

Examples of resource allocation:

 Allocating personnel to specific tasks based on their skills and availability.

  Allocating equipment and materials to specific tasks based on the project timeline and
availability.

 Prioritizing tasks based on their importance and allocating resources accordingly.

 Adjusting resource allocation based on changes in project requirements or unforeseen

events.

Effective resource allocation is essential for project success and requires continuous monitoring
and adjustment throughout the project lifecycle.

Resource Allocation in Project Management

The successful completion of any project depends heavily on resource allocation in the field
of project management. Effective project resource management is essential for completing
project deadlines, maintaining budget, and attaining project objectives. When there are few
resources available and several tasks are vying for them, the resource allocation problem occurs.
Project managers must make well-informed judgments to ensure the best resource allocation
while lowering costs and increasing productivity.

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Resource Allocation Tools

Project managers actively employ a diverse set of resource management tools to efficiently
handle resources. These technologies effectively streamline procedures, enhance accuracy, and
significantly boost the overall efficiency of a project. Several well-received instruments for
resource allocation are as follows:

 Project Management Software – Programmes like Microsoft Project, Smartsheet, and

Asana allow project managers to schedule, plan, and monitor resources over the course of
a project.

 Spreadsheet Programs – Both Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets enable users to create
customized resource allocation templates that can be adjusted and tailored to suit the
requirements of a specific project, providing flexibility in managing resources effectively.

 Resource Management Software – Dedicated resource management programs like

Resource Guru and Float offer specialized capabilities targeted at resource scheduling,
forecasting, and capacity planning.

By using these resource allocation tools, you can gain valuable insights into resource usage on
your project and make data-driven decisions to optimize resource allocation and improve project
outcomes.

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Best Resource Allocation Methods and Techniques

Resources can be allocated using a range of methods and techniques, depending on the project
requirements, available resources, and organizational structure. Here are some common methods
and techniques for resource allocation:

 Top-down allocation – This approach entails resource distribution in accordance with

the project’s priorities, beginning with the most essential tasks and working down to the
less important ones.

 Bottom-up allocation – Bottom-up allocation refers to a decision-making process where

resources or authority are distributed from lower levels of an organization to higher
levels, allowing individuals or teams to have more autonomy and control over their tasks
and responsibilities.

 Heuristic allocation – This approach allocates resources based on intuition, past

performance, or easy methods and serves as a solid foundation for future improvement.

 Optimization techniques – Mathematical models and methods such as integer and linear
programming are applied to find the best way to allocate resources to a project.

No matter which method or technique is used, it’s important to ensure resource optimization
and that resources are allocated in a way that optimizes their usage and maximizes the chances of
project success. Regular monitoring and adjustment of resource allocation can help to ensure that
resources are being used efficiently and effectively throughout the project lifecycle.

Benefits of Resource Allocation

Effective resource allocation process offers numerous benefits to project management, including:

 Improved efficiency – Allocating resources optimally ensures that the project is

completed on time and within budget.

 Better decision-making – A clear understanding of resource requirements and

availability helps project managers make informed decisions.
  Increased productivity – Proper resource allocation boosts team productivity by
ensuring that each team member has the necessary resources to perform their tasks
effectively.

 Enhanced communication and collaboration – A well-defined resource allocation plan

can improve communication and collaboration among team members, leading to better
overall project outcomes.

Challenges of Resource Allocation

Allocating resources has various difficulties, which might affect a project’s success. Typical
difficulties include:

 Limited Resources – A lack of resources is definitely a challenge for a business, as it

might make it critical to distribute resources in the best way possible. Thus, the
mentioned factor leads to business disruption and tradeoffs.

 Conflicting Priorities – The term conflicting priorities states the crisis of managing
multiple projects at once. Indubitably, managing the demands of numerous jobs and
projects can lead to disputes and, thus, require hard choices.

 Uncertainty – Due to unforeseen circumstances or changes in the project’s scope,

estimating resource needs and availability can be difficult.
  Communication and Collaboration – Successful resource allocation requires strong
team member collaboration and communication. Thus, a little miscommunication can
lead to project delays.

If you’re curious about the salary structure of project managers, feel free to check out our
blog on Project manager salary in India.

How to Allocate Resources on a Project

Resource allocation is an important activity that can significantly impact a project’s success.
Observe these top recommendations.

 Define Project Objectives and Scope – Clearly outline the project’s goals and scope to
determine the necessary resources.

 Create a Detailed Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) – Break down the project into
smaller tasks, which will help in estimating resource requirements.

 Use Historical Data – Analyze past projects to inform resource allocation decisions and
improve the accuracy of estimates.

 Involve Team Members – Engage team members in the resource allocation process to
gain valuable insights and foster collaboration.

 Monitor and Adjust – Regularly track resource usage and make adjustments as needed
to optimize resource allocation throughout the project lifecycle.

 Be Flexible and Adaptable – Be prepared to adjust resource allocation plans in response

to changes in project scope, priorities, or resource availability.

With these best practices, you can strategize and allocate resources to a project to maximize
efficiency, effectiveness, and success.

LEARNING OUTCOME 4: CONTROL QUALITY

Machinery, plant and equipment

This section covers the different safety aspects of using machinery and maintaining plant and
equipment in the workplace. Employers should consider how their workers use machinery, and
have adequate maintenance arrangements in place to ensure it remains safe to use.

There is also specific advice on lifting equipment and carrying out vehicle repairs.

Case study

Why is machinery safety important?

Moving machinery can cause injuries in many ways:

 People can be struck and injured by moving parts of machinery or ejected material. Parts
of the body can also be drawn in or trapped between rollers, belts and pulley drives.

 Sharp edges can cause cuts and severing injuries, sharp-pointed parts can cause stabbing
or puncture the skin, and rough surface parts can cause friction or abrasion.

 People can be crushed, both between parts moving together or towards a fixed part of the
machine, wall or other object, and two parts moving past one another can cause shearing.

 Parts of the machine, materials and emissions (such as steam or water) can be hot or cold
enough to cause burns or scalds, and electricity can cause electrical shock and burns.

 Injuries can also occur due to machinery becoming unreliable and developing faults or
when machines are used improperly through inexperience or lack of training.

What should employers do?

Before they start

Before they start using any machine they need to think about what risks may occur and how
these can be managed. They should therefore do the following:

 Check that the machine is complete, with all safeguards fitted, and free from defects. The
term ‘safeguarding’ includes guards, interlocks, two-hand controls, light guards,
pressure-sensitive mats etc. National legislation often requires the supplier to provide the
right safeguards and inform buyers of any risks (‘residual risks’) that users need to be
aware of and manage because they could not be designed out.

 Produce a safe system of work for using and maintaining the machine. Maintenance may
require the inspection of critical features where deterioration would cause a risk. They
should also look at the residual risks identified by the manufacturer in the
information/instructions provided with the machine and make sure they are included in
the safe system of work.

 Ensure every static machine has been installed properly and is stable (usually fixed
down).

 Choose the right machine for the job and do not put machines where customers or visitors
may be exposed to risk.

Make sure the machine is:

 Safe for any work that has to be done when setting up, during normal use, when clearing
blockages, when carrying out repairs for breakdowns, and during planned maintenance;

 Properly switched off, isolated or locked off before taking any action to remove
blockages, clean or adjust the machine;

Also, make sure they identify and deal with the risks from:

 Electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic power supplies;

 Badly designed safeguards. These may be inconvenient to use or easily overridden, which
could encourage their workers to risk injury and break the law. If this is happening
 employers should find out why workers are doing it and take appropriate action to deal
with the reasons/causes.

Preventing access to dangerous parts

Employers should think about how they can make a machine safe. The measures they use to
prevent access to dangerous parts should be in the following order. In some cases it may be
necessary to use a combination of these measures:

 Use fixed guards (e.g. secured with screws or nuts and bolts) to enclose the dangerous
parts, whenever practical. Use the best material for these guards – plastic may be easy to
see through but may easily be damaged. Where you use wire mesh or similar materials,
make sure the holes are not large enough to allow access to moving parts.

 If fixed guards are not practical, they should use other methods, e.g. interlock the guard
so that the machine cannot start before the guard is closed and cannot be opened while
the machine is still moving. In some cases, trip systems such as photoelectric devices,
pressure-sensitive mats or automatic guards may be used if other guards are not practical.

 Where guards cannot give full protection, use jigs, holders, push sticks etc. if it is
practical to do so.

 Employers should control any remaining risk by providing the worker/operator with the
necessary information, instruction, training, supervision and appropriate safety
equipment.

Other things employers should also consider

 If machines are controlled by programmable electronic systems, changes to any

programmes should be carried out by a competent person (someone who has the
necessary skills, knowledge and experience to carry out the work safely). It is good
practice if employers’ keep a record of such changes and check to ensure they have been
made properly.

 Ensure control switches are clearly marked to show what they do.
  Have emergency stop controls where necessary, e.g. mushroom-head push buttons within
easy reach.

 Make sure operating controls are designed and placed to avoid accidental operation and
injury, use two-hand controls where necessary and shroud start buttons and pedals.

 Don’t let unauthorized, unqualified or untrained people use machinery – never allow
children to operate or help at machines. Some workers, e.g. new starters, young people or
those with disabilities, may be particularly at risk and need instruction, training and
supervision.

 Adequate training should ensure that those who use the machine are competent to use it
safely. This includes ensuring they have the correct skills, knowledge and experience –
sometimes formal qualifications may be needed.

 Supervisors must also be properly trained and competent to be effective. They may need
extra specific training and there are recognized courses for supervisors.

 Ensure the work area around the machine is kept clean and tidy, free from obstructions or
slips and trips hazards, and well lit.

Dos and don’ts of machinery safety for workers

Do...

 check the machine is well maintained and fit to be used, i.e. appropriate for the job and
working properly and that all the safety measures are in place – guards, isolators, locking
mechanisms, emergency off switches etc.;

 use the machine properly and in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions;

 make sure operators are wearing the appropriate protective clothing and equipment
required for that machine, such as safety glasses, hearing protection and safety shoes.

Don’t...

 use a machine or appliance that has a danger sign or tag attached to it. Danger signs
should only be removed by an authorised person who is
  satisfied that the machine or process is now safe;

 wear dangling chains, loose clothing, rings or have loose, long hair that could get caught
up in moving parts;

 distract people who are using machines;

 remove any safeguards, even if their presence seems to make the job more difficult.

Case study

Plant and equipment maintenance

Maintenance on plant and equipment is carried out to prevent problems arising, to put faults
right, and to ensure equipment is working effectively.

Maintenance may be part of a planned programme or may have to be carried out at short notice
after a breakdown. It always involves non-routine activities and can expose those involved (and
others) to a range of risks.

Why is maintenance of plant and equipment important?

An effective maintenance programme will make plant and equipment more reliable. Fewer
breakdowns will mean less dangerous contact with machinery is required, as well as having the
cost benefits of better productivity and efficiency.

Additional hazards can occur when machinery becomes unreliable and develops faults.
Maintenance allows these faults to be diagnosed early to manage any risks. However,
maintenance needs to be correctly planned and carried out. Unsafe maintenance has caused many
fatalities and serious injuries, either during the maintenance or to those using the badly
maintained or wrongly maintained/repaired equipment.
What should employers do?

Employers who provide equipment for use, from hand tools and ladders to electrical power tools
and larger plant, need to ensure that, so far as is reasonably practicable that the machinery and
equipment under their control is safe and without risk to health. One way to achieve this is for
employers to have arrangements in place to make sure machinery and equipment is maintained in
a safe condition.

They should think about what hazards can occur if:

 tools break during use;

 machinery starts up unexpectedly;

 there is contact with materials that are normally enclosed within the machine, i.e. caused
by leaks/breakage/ejection etc.

Failing to correctly plan and communicate clear instructions and information before starting
maintenance can lead to confusion and can cause accidents. This can be a particular problem if
maintenance is during normal production work or where there are contractors who are unfamiliar
with the site.

Case study

Extra care is also required if maintenance involves:

 working at height or when doing work that requires access to unusual parts of the
building;

 when entering vessels or confined spaces where there may be toxic materials or a lack of
air.
How can employers do it?

Establishing a planned maintenance programme is a useful step towards reducing risk, as well as
having a reporting procedure for workers who may notice problems while working on
machinery.

Some items of plant and equipment may have safety-critical features where deterioration would
cause a risk. Employers must have arrangements in place to make sure the necessary inspections
take place.

But there are other steps to consider:

Before employers instruct workers to start maintenance

 Decide if the work should be done by specialist contractors. Never take on work for
which workers are not prepared or competent.

 Plan the work carefully before it starts, ideally using the manufacturer’s maintenance
instructions, and produce a safe system of work. This will avoid unforeseen delays and
reduce the risks.

 Make sure maintenance staff are competent and have appropriate clothing and equipment.

 Try and use downtime for maintenance. This can avoid the difficulties in co-ordinating
maintenance and production work if maintenance work is performed before start-up or
during shutdown periods.

Safe working areas

 Employers must provide safe access and a safe place of work.

 They must not just focus on the safety of maintenance workers – they must take the
necessary precautions to ensure the safety of others who may be affected by the
maintenance work, e.g. other workers or contractors working nearby.
  Employers and the maintenance personnel should set up signs and barriers and position
people at key points if they are needed to keep other people out.

Case study

Safe plant and equipment

Employers should ensure plant and equipment is made safe before maintenance starts, through:

Safe isolation

 Ensuring moving plant has stopped and isolate electrical and other power supplies. Most
maintenance should be carried out with the power off. If the work is near uninsulated,
overhead electrical conductors, e.g. close to overhead travelling cranes, cut the power off
first.

 Locking off machines if there is a chance the power could be accidentally switched back
on.

 Isolating plant and pipelines containing pressured fluid, gas, steam or hazardous material.
Locking off isolating valves.

Other factors needing to be considered

 Releasing any stored energy, such as compressed air or hydraulic pressure that could
cause the machine to move or cycle.

 Supporting parts of plant that could fall, e.g. support the blades of down-stroking bale
cutters and guillotines with blocks.
  Allowing components that operate at high temperatures time to cool.

 Place mobile plant in neutral gear, apply the brake and chock the wheels.

 Safely cleaning out vessels containing flammable solids, liquids, gases or dusts, and
check them before hot work is carried out to prevent explosions. Specialist help and
advice may be needed to do this safely.

 Avoiding entering tanks and vessels where possible. This can be very high-risk work. If
required, get specialist help to ensure adequate precautions are taken.

 Cleaning and checking vessels containing toxic materials before work starts.

Dos and don’ts of plant and equipment maintenance

Do...

 ensure maintenance is carried out by a competent person (someone who has the necessary
skills, knowledge and experience to do the work safely);

 maintain plant and equipment regularly – use the manufacturer’s maintenance

instructions as a guide, particularly if there are safety-critical features;

 have a procedure that allows workers to report damaged or faulty equipment;

 provide the proper tools for the maintenance person;

 schedule maintenance to minimise the risk to other workers and the maintenance person
wherever possible;

 make sure maintenance is done safely, that machines and moving parts are isolated or
locked and that flammable/explosive/toxic materials are dealt with properly.

Don’t...

 ignore maintenance;

 ignore reports of damaged or unsafe equipment;

 use faulty or damaged equipment.

Safe lifting by machine

If the employer provides lifting equipment for use at work, or if they have control of the use of
lifting equipment, they must make sure it is safe.

Employers should think about what risks there may be and how they can be managed, for
example:

 damage or deterioration of the equipment caused by wet, abrasive or corrosive

environments;

 trying to move weights that are too heavy and exceed the load limit of the machine;

 equipment failure;

 untrained workers planning the lift or using the equipment;

 people being struck by moving parts of the machinery or by things falling.

Safe lifting needs to be properly planned by a competent person, appropriately supervised and
carried out safely. Any equipment used must have been properly designed, manufactured and
tested. Not forgetting the need to maintain it properly.

Factors that should be considered

 What is being lifted?

 How heavy is it?

 Where is its centre of gravity?

 How will it be attached to the lifting machinery?

 Who is in control of the lift?

 What are the safe limits of the equipment?

 Could the lift be rehearsed if necessary?

Dos and don’ts when using lifting machinery

Do...
  use only certified lifting equipment, marked with its safe working load, which has been
regularly examined to ensure it is fit for purpose;

 keep the reports of any examinations as well as any declarations of conformity or test
certificates;

 make sure the load is properly attached to the lifting equipment. If necessary, securely
bind the load to prevent it slipping or falling off;

 before lifting an unbalanced load, find out its centre of gravity. Raise it a few inches off
the ground and pause – there should be little harm if it drops;

 use packaging to prevent sharp edges of the load from damaging slings and do not allow
tackle to be damaged by being dropped, dragged from under loads or subjected to sudden
loads;

 when using jib cranes, make sure any indicators for safe loads are working properly and
set correctly for the job and the way the machine is configured;

 use outriggers where necessary;

 when using multi-slings, make sure the sling angle is taken into account;

 have a responsible slinger or banksman and use a recognized signalling system.

Don’t...

 use unsuitable equipment, e.g. makeshift, damaged, badly worn chains shortened with
knots, kinked or twisted wire ropes, frayed or rotted fibre ropes;

 exceed the safe working load of machinery or accessories like chains, slings and grabs.
Remember that the load in the legs of a sling increases as the angle between the legs
increases;

 lift a load if you doubt its weight or the adequacy of the equipment.

Find out more

1. HSE’s work equipment and machinery website

 2. Providing and using work equipment safely: A brief guide

3. Lifting equipment at work: A brief guide

4. Napo in... safe maintenance

Vehicle repair

Motor vehicle repair work has particular dangers and the employer (or self employed person)
needs to identify and minimize the risks to both safety and health. To help them achieve this,
some specific precautions should be taken:

 Make sure vehicle brakes are applied and wheels are chocked. Always start and run
engines with the brakes on and in neutral gear.

 Support vehicles on both jacks and axle stands, never rely on jacks alone.

 Always prop/support raised vehicle bodies with equipment/tools designed for the task.

 Always ensure that vehicles elevated on lifting equipment are properly positioned and
stable and that all arm locks (where provided) are fully engaged.

 Ensure paint sprayers who use ‘two-pack’ paints use air-fed respiratory equipment to
protect them against isocyanate exposure, which can cause occupational asthma.

 Beware of fire and explosion risks when draining and repairing fuel tanks, and from
battery gases. Never drain petrol tanks near or over a pit.

 Ensure you do not short-circuit batteries.

 Use a tyre cage when inflating commercial tyres and stand away from the trajectory zone,
particularly those with multi-piece or divided wheels as explosions do happen.

 Brake and clutch pads on older cars may contain asbestos, so always use appropriate
precautions.

 Wear protective clothing when handling battery acid.

 Be aware of the risk from mineral oil contamination (especially used engine oils) on
hands and other parts of the body. Frequent and prolonged contact with used engine oil
 may cause dermatitis and other skin disorders, including skin cancer. Good personal
hygiene at all times is essential and this includes making sure overalls are cleaned
regularly.

Find out more

1. Safety and health at the motor vehicle repair shop

2. Health and safety in the motor vehicle repair industry

3. Health and safety in motor vehicle repair and associated industries

4. Reducing ill health and accidents in motor vehicle repair

SUPPLIER QUALITY ASSURANCE

Construction Quality Management: Everything You Should Know

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A successful construction project delivery requires proper quality management controls in place.
It ensures fewer mistakes and project rework, timely delivery, reduced costs, and improved
business relationships. In this blog post, we’ll cover some basics about construction quality
management that you should know. We will begin with a quick introduction.

Table of Contents

 What is Construction Quality Management?

 What are the Key Challenges in Construction Quality Management?

o 1. Defective and low-standard materials

o 2. Supplier Quality Issues

o 3. Poor Subcontractor Management

o 4. Lack of documentation of Changes and Practices

o 5. Managing Unexpected Changes

o 6. Increased scope

o 7. Lack of communication between teams

o 8. Intricacy of designs

o 9. Lack of Proper Process Management

o 10. Failure to Perform Regular Audits

 How to Improve Construction Quality Management?

o Define Quality Requirements

o Fulfill Training Requirements

o Managing and Monitoring Construction Quality Processes

What is Construction Quality Management?

Construction quality management is the process of controlling quality on a construction site. It

basically ensures that all parts of the project are compliant and safe to use. Inspections are
performed both internally and externally. They’ll be testing for things like soil compactibility,
concrete stiffness, weld quality, and much more. It is usually performed both during and after
work unless it is for a specific material. Before construction begins, it is crucial to check building
materials to avoid any incidents. At the same time, final project inspections determine whether or
not it meets compliance and its cost-effectiveness.

What are the Key Challenges in Construction Quality Management?

Despite all these contractors and teams, however, not every project meets compliance. It is
almost impossible to accomplish quality assurance and quality control without quality
management systems or policies. It is common for superintendents to overwork themselves since
they are responsible for the quality of work. Quality and standards may also differ from job to
job due to a change of crew and suppliers. There are no standardized systems & processes for
conducting quality control, so quality assurance becomes difficult. An integrated construction
management approach improves quality on sites and reduces rework.

Quality management in construction begins with an understanding of the factors that can
influence safety and quality. Those factors include:

1. Defective and low-standard materials

Construction quality issues can arise from excess water or sand in concrete mixes, lumber cut
from stunted trees, and improperly graded steel. Not only are these materials prone to failure
early, but they pose a safety hazard during the construction process as well. For example, worker
injuries are common when sparks are generated during cutting or when a structure collapses due
to poor support. The only way to guarantee a project is supplied correctly is to buy only from
reputable suppliers and have a quality control officer oversee all materials shipments.

2. Supplier Quality Issues

Problems with suppliers and vendors can increase costs and lower quality levels even if the
materials themselves are not to blame. For example, building supplies that are changed for
another brand or material that does not meet the same standards may lead to unhappy customers
and time-consuming rework requests. Make sure all suppliers understand the requirements and
conduct regular audits to ensure they are staying within them. When a construction project is in
the middle of the process, finding new suppliers might seem like a distraction, but it can enhance
construction quality.

3. Poor Subcontractor Management

A study found that human error accounts for over half of all construction defects. When
subcontractors hire employees without the proper skills and cannot train them, they can make
mistakes that go unnoticed for years. It would be best to screen subcontractors and other labor
providers to ensure they are skilled and capable of catching their own mistakes. Audits of
subcontractors are still necessary for contractors and project managers to detect and resolve any
problems early.

4. Lack of documentation of Changes and Practices

There are times when quality problems are not caused by errors or design changes but rather by
the lack of documentation. For example, changing material with different maintenance and
replacement periods can lead to improper handling by the maintenance team if all final
documents are not updated. You should be able to easily update project documents using
a Document Change & Control Management System. There is no reason to delay updating
drawings and other related files.

5. Managing Unexpected Changes

In the construction process, last-minute changes often cause serious quality issues. For example,
at the Kansas City Hyatt Regency in July 1981, a change in the design of the tie rod supports led
to a fatal collapse. Make sure you set deadlines by which designs cannot be changed anymore or
arrange for extensions. Give yourself enough time to verify any changes to the existing design
and test them.

6. Increased scope

Most construction projects begin much smaller and simpler than they end up. What makes a
primary bridge transform into a multilane highway? Such unplanned growth is known as scope
creep. The scope of every project changes over time as new costs, time constraints, and
constraints on a particular site are discovered. However, when these changes result in cutting
corners to stretch a limited budget and time frame, this is where the problem lies. A well-defined
scope of the project ensures that the contractors maintain the same quality throughout the whole
project.

7. Lack of communication between teams

According to a study, communication problems lead to the most quality issues. A lack of
communication leads to the inefficient use of new techniques, faulty materials, and a lack of
secondary and tertiary testing to identify current problems. You can significantly improve
communication between team members working on a single construction project with an
integrated eQMS solution like Qualityze with chatter functionality for enhanced communication.

8. Intricacy of designs

A work of high quality is unaffordable if it is too complex. Therefore, complex techniques and
unusual features must be minimized whenever possible in projects involving cutting-edge
infrastructure and commercial construction. Furthermore, simplified designs offer a better profit
margin to the construction company while maintaining the highest quality.

9. Lack of Proper Process Management

Using the right construction process management system, you can determine the best intervals
for checking the work for errors and omissions. Unfortunately, most construction firms fail to
carry out essential checks on their work on time without quality control and assurance
management system. If you utilize the right construction quality management system, you can
easily and quickly keep track of current projects.

10. Failure to Perform Regular Audits

Some contractors continue to use flawed designs or ignore quality problems regardless of the
results of their third-party testing and auditing plans. Reports bounce back and forth from the
project manager to the lead engineer without a clear workflow for managing the process. Identify
the right person who can manage audits, respective follow-ups, and share recommendations for
improvements within time to avoid any catastrophic events.
Related Article: Audit Analysis: Know Why It is Important?

How to Improve Construction Quality Management?

It is best to implement an organized process for improving construction quality management.

The first step to establishing any process is defining objectives and defining accountability in a
formalized structure. However, that is just the beginning. Construction Quality Management
System should detect and mitigate potential issues at every stage, verify any outcomes, and
assess the quality objectives’ effectiveness. While creating a process may seem like a lot of
work, it consists of just a few steps.

Define Quality Requirements

For a construction quality management process to be effective, it is necessary to research the

quality requirements and specifications for each project step. Documentation is needed for
distribution and clarification, so it’s more than just knowing the standards. The process may
involve clarifying specifications through further documentation. Once you’ve established quality
standards and documented them, you can develop your training process.

A quality management plan and a quality assurance process will form the basis of the quality
management process. A quality control plan outlines any unique project requirements,
determines quality standards, and how to achieve them. It also guides through the best practices
for meeting and exceeding quality standards. The quality assurance process will also identify the
inspection requirements, the timing, and the reporting methods, as well as the person responsible
for reporting.

Fulfill Training Requirements

Setting standards is essential, but training is also crucial. To comply with the construction quality
management processes, it is necessary to identify the people responsible for each process and
keep them informed about standards and requirements and the procedures to follow. Since they
will be responsible for the quality of the project, they should inform their subordinates of the
specific standards their team must adhere to.

Managing and Monitoring Construction Quality Processes

After the training is completed and the processes are established, assessing the quality of the
management is the last step. The quality assurance person should review all plans for compliance
with business standards, including work practices, materials, and finished work. It is their
responsibility to fix any faulty materials or labor. Finally, they implement quality control
procedures to ensure the project meets standards or exceeds them.

If you want a comprehensive solution to manage construction quality management and the
respective challenges, you can count on Qualityze Enterprise Quality Management Solution. It
enables your quality teams to align business objectives with industry-proven best practices while
meeting compliance and project requirements.

Quality Control and Assurance in Construction Project Management: Ensuring Excellence

Every Step of the Way

Amirhossein Karimzadeh

Amirhossein Karimzadeh

Civil Engineering | Construction Management | Actively seeking employment

Published Aug 5, 2023

+ Follow

In the dynamic world of construction project management, ensuring the highest standards of
quality is paramount to the success of any endeavor. The implementation of effective Quality
Control and Assurance (QA/QC) measures is not just a box-ticking exercise but a fundamental
aspect of delivering projects that stand the test of time and exceed client expectations. Let's delve
into the comprehensive realm of QA/QC in construction and understand how it guarantees
excellence at every stage of the project lifecycle.

1. Understanding the Difference: Quality Control vs. Quality Assurance

Before we delve deeper, it's crucial to distinguish between Quality Control and Quality
Assurance. Quality Control involves the systematic inspection, testing, and monitoring of
materials, workmanship, and processes during construction. It is the on-site verification and
rectification of any discrepancies to maintain consistency and compliance with project
specifications.

On the other hand, Quality Assurance encompasses the comprehensive set of activities, policies,
and procedures implemented at the project's inception. It ensures that project requirements are
clearly defined, resources are allocated efficiently, and processes are designed to prevent defects
from arising in the first place.

2. Setting the Foundations: Quality Planning

Quality Control and Assurance begin with meticulous planning. It involves collaborating with
stakeholders, clients, and project teams to establish clear quality objectives and standards. These
standards act as the benchmark against which project outcomes will be measured. An effective
Quality Plan defines roles, responsibilities, and the inspection process, ensuring everyone
involved understands their contribution to maintaining the desired quality.

3. Procurement and Vendor Selection

Quality starts with selecting the right suppliers and vendors. Thorough vendor assessments,
evaluating their track record, and past performance are essential in maintaining a chain of
reliable and competent suppliers. Engaging trusted partners in the procurement process assures
that materials meet specifications and conform to the required standards.
4. Implementation of Quality Control

Once construction commences, diligent Quality Control is essential to catch any deviations from
the project's established quality standards. Regular inspections, material testing, and adherence to
quality checklists become the norm. Defects and non-conformities are documented and promptly
rectified to prevent potential downstream issues.

5. Quality Assurance through Audits and Reviews

Incorporating periodic Quality Assurance audits and reviews ensures that processes and
procedures are operating as intended. These evaluations not only identify areas for improvement
but also celebrate best practices, fostering a culture of continuous improvement.

6. Training and Skill Development

A skilled workforce is crucial in delivering quality outcomes. Offering training and development
opportunities to construction teams enhances their technical competencies and understanding of
quality objectives. This empowers them to execute tasks with precision and care.

7. Embracing Technology for Quality Management

The construction industry is embracing digitalization, and Quality Control and Assurance are no
exception. Advanced construction management software, Building Information Modeling (BIM),
and mobile inspection tools streamline quality inspections, improve data accuracy, and facilitate
real-time communication among stakeholders.

8. Feedback and Lessons Learned

Quality Control and Assurance should not end with the project's completion. Encouraging
feedback from all stakeholders, analyzing lessons learned, and implementing improvements in
subsequent projects is essential in achieving continuous quality enhancement.