19-209-0704- ELECTRIC AND
HYBRID VEHICLES
Dr. Anna Thomas
Assistant Professor
Division of Electrical Engineering
SOE,CUSAT
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MODULE 1
Introduction to hybrid electric vehicles, social and environmental importance of
hybrid and electric vehicles, impact of modern drive trains on energy supplies.
Conventional Vehicles: Basics of vehicle performance, vehicle power source
characterization, transmission characteristics, mathematical models to describe
vehicle performance.
Hybrid Electric Drive-trains: Basic concept of hybrid traction, introduction to
various hybrid drive train topologies, Comparison of Power flow control and fuel
efficiency analysis
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Module 1: Introduction
•What is a hybrid?
• A hybrid vehicle combines any two power (energy) sources.
•Possible combinations include diesel/electric, gasoline/fly wheel, and
fuel cell (FC)/battery.
•One energy source is storage, and the other is conversion of a fuel to energy.
•Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) Consistent with the definition of hybrid above,
the hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor.
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Social and Environmental Importance of Hybrid & Electric Vehicle
• Growing presence of global warming and irreversible climate change draws increasing
amounts of concern from the world’s population.
• Cars & Trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO2 emission.
• Need of high efficiency, clean, and safe transportation.
• Electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles have been typically
proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the near future.
• Air pollution, gas emissions causing global warming, and petroleum resource depletion due
to the use of conventional engines gave birth to the development of electric vehicles.
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A) Air Pollution
• Combustion is a reaction between the fuel and the air that releases heat and combustion
products. The heat is converted to mechanical power by an engine and the combustion
products are released into the atmosphere.
• Combustion products contain CO2, water, certain amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxides (CO), and unburned hydrocarbons (HC), all of which are toxic to
human health.
Nitrogen Oxides
• .Nitrogen oxides (NOx) result from the reaction between nitrogen in the air and oxygen.
• The most commonly found nitrogen oxide is nitric oxide (NO) nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
and traces of nitrous oxide (N2O) are also present.
• Nitrogen dioxide is partly responsible for smog; its brownish color makes smog visible.
• Nitrogen dioxide reacts with atmospheric water to form nitric acid (HNO3), which
dilutes in rain.
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• This phenomenon is referred to as ―acid rain‖ and is responsible for the destruction of
forests in industrialized countries.
• Acid rain also contributes to the degradation of historical monuments made of marble
• Carbon Monoxide
• Carbon monoxide results from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons due to a lack of
oxygen. It is a poison to human and animal beings that breathe it.
• Once carbon monoxide reaches the blood cells, it fixes to the hemoglobin in place of
oxygen, thus diminishing the quantity of oxygen that reaches the organs.
• Dizziness is the first symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning, which can rapidly lead to
death.
• Unburned Hydrocarbons
• Unburned hydrocarbons are a result of the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
Depending on their nature, unburned hydrocarbons may be harmful to living beings.
• • Unburned hydrocarbons are also responsible for smog: the Sun’s ultraviolet radiations
interact with unburned hydrocarbons and NO in the atmosphere to form ozone and other
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products.
• • It is colorless but very dangerous, and poisons as it attacks the membranes of living cells,
thus causing them to age prematurely or to die.
Other Pollutants
• Impurities in fuels result in the emission of pollutants. The major impurity is sulfur, which
is mostly found in diesel and jet fuel and also in gasoline and natural gas.
• The combustion of sulfur (or sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide) with oxygen
releases sulfur oxides (SOx). Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the major product of this combustion.
Sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain.
B) Global Warming
• Global warming is a result of the ―greenhouse effect‖ induced by the presence
of carbon dioxide and other gases.
• These gases trap the Sun’s infrared radiation reflected by the ground, thus
retaining the energy in the atmosphere and increasing the temperature.
• An increased Earth temperature results in major ecological damages to its
ecosystems .
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• The melting of the polar icecaps, another major result of global warming, raises the sea
level and can cause the permanent inundation of coastal regions, and sometimes of
entire countries.
• Transportation accounts for a large share (32% from 1980 to 1999) of carbon dioxide
emissions
Trend in carbon dioxide emissions
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( C) Depletion of Petroleum Resources
The vast majority of fuels used for transportation are liquid fuels originating from petroleum.
• Petroleum is a fossil fuel, resulting from the decomposition of living matters that were
imprisoned millions of years ago (Ordovician, 600 to 400 million years ago) in geologically
stable layers.
• The process is roughly the following: living matters (mostly plants) die and are slowly
covered by sediments. Over time, these accumulating sediments form thick layers, and
transform to rock.
• The living matters are trapped in a closed space, where they encounter high pressures and
temperatures, and slowly transform into either hydrocarbons or coal, depending on their nature.
• This process took millions of years to accomplish. This is what makes the Earth’s resources
in fossil fuels finite.
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Advantages of Hybrid Vehicles
• The electric motor is far more efficient (70%-85% efficiency) than the heat engine.
• EV’s can use regenerative braking (regain 30% of energy used, theoretically).
• HEV’s are more environmentally friendly (if electricity if produced from renewable
sources)
• Reduction in engine and vehicle weight
• Fuel efficiency is increased
• Emissions are decreased
• Cut emissions of global warming pollutants by 1/3 or 1/2
• Reduce the dependency on fossil fuels
• ~2 times more efficient than conventional engines
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TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
For automobile applications, there are usually two basic types of
transmissions:
• manual gear transmission and hydrodynamic transmission.
• Manual Gear Transmission
• Manual gear transmission consists of a clutch, gearbox, final drive, and
driveshaft.
• The final drive has a constant gear reduction ratio or a differential gear
ratio
• The gearbox provides a number of gear reduction ratios ranging from
three to five for passenger cars and more for heavy commercial vehicles
that are powered with gasoline or diesel engines.
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For a four-speed gearbox, the following relationship can be established.
where ig1, ig2, ig3, and ig4 are the gear ratios for the first, second,
third, and fourth gear, respectively
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HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSION
• Hydrodynamic transmissions use fluid to transmit power in the form of torque
and speed and are widely used in passenger cars.
• They consist of a torque converter and an automatic gearbox.
• The torque converter consists of at least three rotary elements known as the
impeller (pump), the turbine, and the reactor
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Impeller
Turbine
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• The impeller is connected to the engine shaft and the turbine is connected to
the output shaft of the converter, which in turn is coupled to the input shaft of
the multispeed gearbox.
• The reactor is coupled to external housing to provide a reaction on the fluid
circulating in the converter.
• The function of the reactor is to enable the turbine to develop an output
torque higher than the input torque of the converter, thus producing torque
multiplication.
• The reactor is usually mounted on a free wheel (one-way clutch) so that when
the starting period has been completed and the turbines peed is approaching
that of the pump, the reactor is in free rotation.
• At this point, the converter operates as a fluid coupled with a ratio of output
torque to input torque that is equal to 1.0.
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The major disadvantages of hydrodynamic transmission are its low efficiency and its
complex construction.
The performance characteristics of a torque converter are described in terms of the
following four parameters:
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Vehicle Power plant characteristics:
For vehicular applications, the ideal performance characteristic of a power plant is
the constant power output over the full speed range. Consequently, the torque
varies with speed hyperbolically as shown in Figure [Link].
At low speeds, the torque is considered to be constant This constant power
characteristic will provide the vehicle with a high tractive effort at low speed,
where demands for acceleration, drawbar pull, or grade climbing capability are
high.
Since the internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most commonly
used power plants for automotive vehicles to date, it is appropriate to review the
basic features of the characteristics that are essential to predicating vehicle
performance and driveline design.
Representative characteristics of a gasoline engine in full throttle and an electric
motor at full load are shown in Figure [Link] and Figure [Link], respectively.
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The internal combustion engine usually has torque–speed characteristics far from the ideal
performance characteristic required by traction. It starts operating smoothly at idle speed.
Good combustion quality and maximum engine torque are reached at an intermediate engine
speed. As the speed increases further, the mean effective pressure decreases because of the
growing losses in the air- induction manifold and a decline in engine torque.
Power output, however, increases to its maximum at a certain high speed. Beyond this point,
the engine torque decreases more rapidly with increasing speed. This results in the decline of
engine power output. In vehicular applications, the maximum permissible
Speed of the engine is usually set just a little above the speed of the maximum power
output. The internal combustion engine has a relatively flat torque–speed profile (compared
with an ideal one), as shown in [Link], a multigear transmission is
usually employed to modify it, as shown in Figure [Link].Electric motors, however,
usually have a speed–torque characteristic that is much closer to the ideal, as shown in
Figure [Link]. Generally, the electric motor starts from zero speed.
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VEHICLE POWER SOURCE CHARACTERIZATION:
An automotive power train, consists of
• power plant(engine or electric motor)
• clutch in manual transmission or a torque converter in automatic transmission
• gearbox
• final drive
• Differential
• drive shaft
• driven
. wheels
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• The torque and rotating speed of the power plant output shaft are transmitted to the
drive wheels through the clutch or torque converter, gearbox, final drive,
differential, and drive shaft.
• The clutch is used in manual transmission to couple the gearbox to or decouple it
from the power plant.
• The torque converter in automatic transmission is a hydrodynamic device,
functioning as the clutch in manual transmission with a continuously variable gear
ratio.
• The gearbox supplies a few gear ratios from its input shaft to its output shaft for the
power plant torque speed profile to match the requirements of the load.
• The final drive is usually a pair of gears that supply a further speed reduction and
distribute the torque to each wheel through the differential.
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The friction in the gear teeth and the friction in the bearings create losses in
mechanical gear transmission.
The following are representative values of the mechanical efficiency of various
components:
Clutch: 99%
Each pair of gears: 95–97%
Bearing and joint: 98–99%
The total mechanical efficiency of the transmission between the engine output shaft
and drive wheels or sprocket is the product of the efficiencies of all the components
in the driveline. As a first approximation, the following average values of the
overall mechanical efficiency of a manual gear-shift transmission may be
used:
Direct gear: 90%
Other gear: 85%
Transmission with a very high reduction ratio: 75–80%
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The torque on the driven wheels, transmitted from the power plant, is expressed as
𝑇𝑤 = 𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑜 𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑝 (1)
where ig is the gear ratio of the transmission defined as Nin/Nout (Nin —input
rotating speed, Nout — output rotating speed), io is the gear ratio of the final drive,
ηt is the efficiency of the driveline from the power plant to the driven wheels, and
Tp is the torque output from the power plant.
The tractive effort on the driven wheels, can be expressed as
𝑇𝑤
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑟 (2)
𝑑
Substitute eq 1 in eq 2
𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑜 𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑝
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑟𝑑
(3)
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The rotating speed (rpm) of the driven wheel can be expressed as
𝑁𝑝
𝑁𝑤 =𝑖 (4)
𝑔 𝑖𝑜
where Np is the output rotating speed (rpm). The translational speed of the wheel
center (vehicle speed) can be expressed as
π𝑁𝑤 𝑟𝑑
𝑉= m/s (5)
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Substitute equation 4 in 5
π𝑁𝑝 𝑟𝑑
𝑉=30𝑖 m/s
𝑔 𝑖𝑜
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Modern Drive trains
• Drivetrain - group of components that deliver power to the driving wheels.
• Drivetrain is a series of parts that work together to transfer the rotational power produced
in engine to wheels so car can move.
• To couple the engine that produces the power to the driving wheels that use this
mechanical power to rotate the axle.
• The operating speed of the engine and wheels are also different and must be matched by
the correct gear ratio.
• As the vehicle speed changes, the ideal engine speed must remain approximately constant
for efficient operation and so this gearbox ratio must also be changed, either manually,
automatically or by an automatic continuous variation.
• There are mainly 4 different types of drivetrain used in vehicles
❖ Rear-wheel drive (RWD)
❖ Front-wheel drive (FWD)
❖ All-wheel drive (AWD)
❖ Four-wheel drive (4WD)
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A) Rear-wheel drive (RWD)
• Power is transferred to the rear wheels to move the car
• This arrangement have many benefits over the front-wheel drive.
• It distributes weight more equally to each tire, which in turn provides better steering
and handling.
• Offer superior braking compared to front-wheel drive vehicles.
• Rear-wheel drivetrain split the jobs of steering and driving the vehicle, lead to better
handling and acceleration.
• Back wheels only have to move the car, In front-wheel the wheels have to both
move the car forwards or backwards and steer it left or right
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Rear-wheel drivetrains consist of the following main parts:
a) Transmission : It controls the amount of power that goes from your engine to your
wheels. In rear-wheel drive cars, the transmission is attached to the rear of the engine by
way of a flywheel. The transmission takes the spinning movement — the torque — from
the engine’s crankshaft and passes it along.
b) Drive Shaft. : The drive shaft is a spinning tube that connects to the rear of the
transmission and transmits the spinning power that began in the engine to the back of the
vehicle at the differential.
Drive shaft designs come in two types: torque tube and Hotchkiss
Torque tube drive shafts were used on older vehicles and are still used on some trucks and
SUVs today.
The driveshaft itself is enclosed in a tube. Torque tubes connect the transmission and
differential via a single universal joint, or U-joint for short.
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Hotchkiss drive shafts are the more common drive shaft design. Hotchkiss drive
shafts have an open design, meaning you can actually see the drive shaft spin
beneath your car when it’s moving. Also, instead of just using one U-joint to
connect the transmission and the differential, Hotchkiss drive shafts use two U-
joints.
c) Differential: The differential is the melon-sized part that sits between the two rear
wheels. It’s the last stop along the drivetrain before torque is transferred to the rear
wheels. The differential transfers torque, causing them to spin,
which in turn moves the car.
It’s called a ―differential‖ because it allows the two rear wheels on the same axle to
move at different speeds. If there was a solid connection between both wheels, one
of the wheels would need to skid in order for the axle to keep moving.
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B) Front-wheel drive (FWD)
• All the components of the drive train — transmission, differential, and drive shafts are in the
front of the car. To fit all these components in the front, cars with a front-wheel drivetrain
arrangement place the engine sideways in the car. This is called a ―transverse engine
placement.‖
• Because all the parts of a forward-wheel drivetrain are positioned at the front of a vehicle,
you can make them smaller and lighter. Or you can make the cars bigger, but just have more
room for passengers.
Consequently, most minivans use front-wheel drive.
• Another benefit of front-wheel drive vehicles is that because there’s more weight at the front
of the vehicle due to all the components of the drivetrain being in the front, it provides more
traction on slippery surfaces, like snow.
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[Link]
✓A transaxle combines the transmission and differential into one single unit.
2. Half-shaft.
✓Front-wheel drive vehicles don’t need long drive shafts to transfer torque to the
wheels. Instead, a half-shaft connects from the transaxle to the wheel assembly.
✓In place of U-joints, half-shafts connect the transaxle and the wheel assembly with
constant velocity joints, or CV-joints.
✓CV-joints use a ball bearing mechanism to reduce friction and allow for the more
complex wheel movements
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C) All-wheel drive (AWD)
• The all-wheel drivetrain system has fluid-filled differentials and advanced electronics
enabling the engine to send power to all four wheels. This provides a vast and highly
improved capability for driving on wet or slippery roads.
D) Four-wheel drive (4WD)
•The four-wheel drivetrain is similar to AWD in that the engine’s power is sent to all four
wheels.
However, 4WD is typically more robust because it’s designed to handle off-road driving
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Rolling resistance
Case 1:Tyre is standstill
Case II:Tyre is moving
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Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Possible ways of combining the power flow to meet the driving requirements
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Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
Hybrid vehicles have 2 power sources -2 power trains
Possible ways of combining the power flow to meet the driving requirements are:
i. Powertrain 1 alone delivers power
ii. Powertrain 2 alone delivers power
iii. Both powertrain 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same time
iv. Powertrain 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
v. Powertrain 2 obtains power from Powertrain 1
vi. Powertrain 2 obtains power from Powertrain 1 and load at the same time
vii. Powertrain 1 delivers power simultaneously to load and to Powertrain 2
viii. Powertrain 1 delivers to Powertrain 2 and Powertrain 2 delivers to load
ix. Powertrain 1 delivers power to load and load delivers power to Powertrain 2
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The power requirement for a typical driving scenario is shown in Figure below
The load power can be decomposed into two parts:
i. steady power, i.e. the power with a constant value
ii. dynamic power, i.e. the power whose average value is zero
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In HEV one powertrain favors steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell.
Electric motors are used to meet the dynamic power demand.
This hybrid drivetrain concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
Hybrid drive train concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:
• Series configuration
• Parallel configuration
• Series-parallel configuration
• Complex configuration
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• Series Hybrid
The mechanical output is first converted into electricity using a generator. The converted
electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the battery to propel the wheels via the
motor and mechanical transmission.
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• In case of series hybrid system the mechanical output is first converted into
electricity using a generator.
• The converted electricity either charges the battery or can bypass the battery to
propel the wheels via the motor and mechanical transmission. Conceptually, it is
an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV).
Advantages
• nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multi gear
transmission unnecessary.
• mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC engine
operating at its very narrow optimal region
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Disadvantages
• The energy is converted twice( mechanical to electrical and then to mechanical
and this reduces overall efficiency.
• Two electrical machines are needed and a big traction motor is required because it
is only torque source for driven wheels
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• Parallel Hybrid
ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver power to drive the wheels.
EM can be used as a generator to charge the battery by regenerative braking or absorbing
power from the ICE when its output is greater than that required to drive the wheels.
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Advantages
• both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels and no
energy form conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
• compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor.
Disadvantages
• mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the engine
operating points cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region.
• The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared to
series hybrid drive train.
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Series-Parallel System:
• Full electric mode
• Engine only mode
• Engine Assistance mode
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Complex Hybrid System
The complex hybrid is similar to the series-parallel hybrid since the generator and
electric motor is both electric machines.
• The key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric motor in
complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the series-
parallel hybrid.
Disadvantage : higher complexity. 79
Power Flow control in hybrid drive trains
Major Goals to achieve the following
1. Maximum fuel efficiency
2. Minimum emissions
3. Minimum System cost
4. Good Driving performance
Considerations :
➢ Optimal ICE operating point : The optimal operating point on the torque-speed plane of the
ICE can be based on maximization of fuel economy, the minimization of emissions or a
compromise between fuel economy and emissions.
➢ Optimal ICE operating line: In case the ICE needs to deliver different power demands, the
corresponding optimal operating points constitute an optimal operating line.
➢ Safe battery voltage: Battery voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage limit nor
should it fall below the minimum voltage limit.
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• Power flow control in Series Hybrid
[Link] start up/Normal Driving/Acceleration
FT-Fuel tank
G-Generator
PC-Power Converter
M-motor
T-Transmission
Mode 1: During startup normal driving or acceleration of the series HEV, both the ICE and
battery deliver electric energy to the power converter which then drives the electric motor
and hence the wheels via transmission.
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[Link] Light load
Mode 2: At light load the ICE output is greater than that required to drive the
wheels. Hence, a fraction of the generated electrical energy is used to charge the
battery. The charging of the batter takes place till the battery capacity reaches a
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proper level.
3. Deceleration/Braking
Mode 3: During braking or deceleration the electric motor acts as a generator, which
converts the kinetic energy of the wheels into electricity and this, is used to charge the
battery.
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4. During Stand Still
Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even when the
vehicle comes to a complete stop
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• Power flow control in Parallel Hybrid
Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration both the ICE and the EM share the
required power to propel the vehicle. Typically, the relative distribution between the
ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.
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Mode 2: During normal driving the required traction power is supplied by the ICE
only and the EM remains in off mode.
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Mode 3: During braking or deceleration the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery
via the power converter.
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Mode 4: Under light load condition the traction power is delivered by the ICE and the
ICE also charges the battery via the electric motor.
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• Power flow control in Series- Parallel Hybrid
Two types
• ICE Dominated
• EM Dominated
ICE Dominated
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EM Dominated
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• Complex Hybrid
The complex hybrid vehicle configurations are of two types:
1. Front hybrid rear electric
2. Front electric and rear hybrid
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Mode 1: Startup : required power is delivered by the EMs and the engine is in off
mode.
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Mode 2: Full throttle acceleration : ICE and the front wheel EM deliver the power to
the front wheel and the second EM delivers power to the rear wheel.
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Mode 3: Normal driving :
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Mode 4: Light load, first EM delivers required power to the front wheel.
The second EM and the ICE are in off sate.
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Mode 5: Braking: front and rear wheel EMs act as generators to charge the battery.
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Mode 6: Unique mode- Axial balancing - In this mode if the front wheel slips, the front EM
works as a generator to absorb the change of ICE power. Through the battery, this power
difference is then used to drive the rear wheels to achieve the axle balancing.
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Front electric and rear hybrid
During Start up
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Starting
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