Sanil et al.

Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143

[Link]

RESEARCH Open Access

Entropy generation optimisation on the

peristaltic mechanism of non-Newtonian
Ree-Eyring fluid with variable liquid
properties
Prathiksha Sanil1 , Manjunatha Gudekote1* , Rajashekhar Choudhari2 , Madhavi M R1 ,
Hanumesh Vaidya3 and Kerehalli Vinayaka Prasad3
*
Correspondence:
manjunatha.g@[Link] Abstract
1
Department of Mathematics,
Manipal Institute of Technology, The current study focuses on the entropy generation characteristics in the peristaltic
Manipal Academy of Higher mechanism of a non-Newtonian Ree-Eyring fluid in an axisymmetric channel.
Education, Manipal, India Temperature-dependent variable fluid properties, such as varying viscosity and
Full list of author information is
available at the end of the article thermal conductivity, are considered. Viscous dissipation and
temperature-dependent fluid properties are integrated into the analysis to better
reflect realistic transport conditions. The momentum equations govern the flow, and
the energy equation is also considered in the study. No-slip conditions are employed
at the boundary of the uniform channel, and non-linear coupled equations are solved
using the perturbation technique. Solutions are obtained for velocity, temperature,
concentration, and stream functions. Graphical representations were generated using
the software MATLAB R2024a. These results highlight the importance of
temperature-dependent viscosity and thermal conductivity in the behaviour of fluids.
The study demonstrated that increased temperature-dependent viscosity
considerably enhanced the velocity profile. Results also reveal that increasing thermal
conductivity and reducing viscosity gradients can significantly minimise entropy
generation. This inverse relationship highlights the importance of assessing
thermodynamic and rheological parameters when attempting to model or control
fluid movement. The optimisation framework offers valuable insights for designing
energy-efficient peristaltic transport systems involving complex fluids. These findings
are especially valuable for enhancing peristaltic transport processes, including
biomedical applications such as drug delivery and endoscopic applications, industrial
applications such as polymer processing, heat transfer in microchannels, and
chemical reactors.
Keywords: Peristaltic transport; Variable liquid properties; Uniform Channel;
Ree-Eyring fluid; Entropy generation; Bejan Number; Total irreversibility

1 Introduction
Peristaltic flow refers to the wave-like contractions and relaxations of biological tissues
that drive fluids through the system, such as in the digestive system and blood vessels. It

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Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 2 of 27

Nomenclature:
Parameters with units
a′ - Uniform radius (m) (X, Y) - Axial and radial distance (m)
b′ - Wave amplitude (m) (x, y) - Axial and radial distance in wave frame (m)
c - Wave Speed (m/s) t - Time (s)
h - non-uniform wave (m) Vi - Velocity
(︂ )︂ vector (m/s)
T0 - Temperature at the walls (K) U, V -Axial and radial velocity components (m/s)
T - Temperature (K) (u, v) - Axial and radial velocity components in wave frame (m/s)
Tm - Mean temperature of fluid (K) τ ij (i = x, y, j = x, y) - Stress component (kg/ms2 )
C - Concentration (mol m–3 ) p - Pressure (N/m2 )
C0 - Concentration at the walls (mol m–3 ) cp - Specific heat (m2 /s2 )

Parameters with units (Greek notations)

μ0 - Reference viscosity (Pa·s), λ - Wavelength (m)
μ(T) - Varying viscosity (kg/ms) κ (T)-Varying thermal conductivity (W/Km)
Dimensionless parameters Dimensionless parameters (Greek Notations)
(x, y) - Axial and radial distance κ (θ ) - Varying thermal conductivity
(u, v) - Axial and radial velocity α1 - Coefficient of variable viscosity
Sc - Schmidt number α2 - Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity
Pr - Prandtl number μ(θ ) - Varying viscosity
Sr - Soret number β - Ree-Eyring fluid parameter
Dm - Coefficient of mass diffusivity ψ - Streamline function
Br - Brinkman number θ - Temperature
E1 - Wall tension parameter ϵ - Amplitude ratio
E2 - Wall mass characterisation parameter σ - Concertation
E3 - Wall damping force parameter
E4 - Wall rigidity parameter
E5 - Wall stiffness parameter
Re - Reynolds number
Ec - Eckert number

is essential to understand the dynamics of peristaltic pumping to model fluid behaviour in

biological systems accurately. One way to approach the modelling of peristaltic flow is to
treat the interaction between the fluid and the surrounding biological tissues, including
wave-like contractions and relaxations of the tissues, as propagating along the fluid-filled
conduits. The viscous and elastic properties of the fluid, which are considered important
in peristaltic flows, must be explicitly introduced in the description of the mathematical
model, along with the viscosity of the biological conduit or channel in which the fluid is
transported, for its geometry governs peristaltic flow behaviour. In understanding peri-
staltic motion existing within the human body, Burns and Parkes [1] studied the effects
of the pressure gradient on the efficiency of peristaltic pumping by varying the pressure
parameter. Pozrikidis [2] suggested that the various mechanisms of peristaltic flow un-
der the changing mean pressure gradient represent a new flow phenomenon, and further
showed that a peristaltic mechanism under a changing mean pressure gradient would be
effective for molecular-convective transport. Eytan et al. [3] modelled the mobility of in-
trauterine fluid in a non-pregnant uterus using wall-induced fluid flow in a tapered chan-
nel. Under the assumptions of long wavelength and low Reynolds number, the viscous fluid
flow caused by symmetric peristaltic waves propagating along the horizontal sidewalls of
a rectangular duct was investigated by Reddy et al. [4]. The influence of amplitude ratio
on peristaltic pumping by incorporating lateral walls was studied, and the results are com-
pared with the corresponding Poiseuille flow. Recently, Tripathi et al. [5] investigated the
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 3 of 27

peristalsis of viscoelastic fluid by employing the fractional Maxwell model and discussed
the effect of relaxation time and friction force on velocity profiles.
The flow condition, which defines the behaviour of fluids at a solid interface as the no-
slip condition, is a fundamental concept in fluid mechanics. Based on the moving condi-
tion, the liquid has no velocity relative to the solid surface in a fluid at rest in contact with
a solid surface. This means the liquid has zero velocity relative to the surface as it adheres
to the interface. The no-slip condition occurs because of molecular interactions between
the liquid and solid surfaces. The solid molecules in the barrier and the liquid ones are at-
tracted, so a thin layer of liquid is attached to the surface. The no-slip condition is critical in
understanding the flow of peristalsis, as it affects fluid behaviour when it is in contact with
the walls of the flow. In the peristaltic flow of Carreau nanofluid, Akbar et al. [6] observed
that the pressure gradient was increased in an asymmetric channel with a no-slip bound-
ary condition. This was related to the Hartmann number, the Power law index, and the
Weissenberg number. The dynamics of peristaltic flows with no-slip boundary conditions
were further elucidated by Hina et al. [7], who considered couple stress parameters, Hart-
mann numbers, and compliant wall parameters. Hina et al. [8] examined the flow of pseu-
doplastic fluid in a curved channel with elastic walls, emphasising the combined effects of
heat and mass transfer in the peristaltic transport. The study revealed that the heat trans-
fer coefficient increased in shear-thinning fluids, whereas it decreased in shear-thickening
fluids. Tripathi et al. [9] developed a mathematical model describing the peristaltic motion
of a non-Newtonian gastric fluid within the intestinal geometry, represented as a curved
conduit, employing the bi-viscosity rheological formulation of Nakamura and Sawada. A
significant contribution in this domain was also made by Hayat et al. [10], who studied the
peristaltic transport of a micropolar fluid in a curved channel while considering chemical
reactions, heat source/sink effects, and Newtonian heating at the boundaries. Rajashekhar
et al. [11] provided a realistic depiction of blood behaviour by adding the two-layered
aspect of blood flow, which is crucial for effectively modelling physiological processes.
Khan and Tariq [12] studied the behaviour of dusty Walter’s B fluid through peristalsis,
gaining insight into the relationship between fluid rheology and suspended particles. The
study by Ahmed et al. [13] involved the finite difference method to numerically model
the peristaltic mechanisms on magnetised Carreau liquid with constant-curve rheologi-
cal properties and Hartmann numbers significantly affecting the heat and mass transfer.
Further studies on the no-slip boundary condition include investigations by Tanveer et al.
[14–16] on different fluids such as Jeffery fluid, Williamson nanofluid and ternary hybrid
nanofluid, respectively. The studies also include external effects such as electro-osmosis,
chemical reaction and surface roughness.
It is necessary to understand the influence of fluid properties on the peristaltic mech-
anism to predict fluid behaviour and outcome. Nutrient absorption and disorders in bi-
ological systems alter fluid viscosity, thus interfering with nutrient transport and blood
flow functions. From the engineering point of view, introducing nanoparticles or drugs
alters the fluid properties, influencing the flow dynamics and efficiencies of systems such
as microfluidic devices. Such knowledge would undoubtedly guide the design and optimi-
sation of peristaltic flow systems, thereby enhancing their performance in both healthcare
and technological applications. Using long-wavelength approximations, Nadeem and Ak-
bar [17] studied temperature-dependent variable viscosity effects on the peristalsis of a
Newtonian fluid in an annulus. The perturbation method is employed to obtain explicit
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 4 of 27

expressions for velocity and temperature, and the flow rate’s correlation with the pressure
gradient. On the other hand, Hussain et al. [18] studied inclined magnetic field effects on
a Jeffrey fluid peristaltic flow with thermal conductivity dependent on temperature. Ak-
bar et al. [19] investigated the peristaltic transport with varying viscosity that depends on
temperature. Farooq et al. [20] investigated the peristaltic pumping of a Jeffrey fluid with
variable viscosity under MHD effects, offering insights for thermofluidic optimisation of
non-Newtonian liquids with dual relaxation times. Further, Hayat et al. [21] examined
peristalsis in a curved channel with variable thermal conductivity and Arrhenius activa-
tion energy, highlighting the significant role of thermal conductivity variability in control-
ling wall heat flux and entropy generation during intense chemical reactions. Mishra et al.
[22] developed a mathematical model incorporating wall velocity slip and temperature-
dependent viscosity to examine the peristaltic motion of an MHD fluid within an asym-
metric channel. The study findings indicate that the thermal boundary layer thickness de-
creases with the intensification of heat sources or sinks, while it increases with enhanced
thermal energy transfer. Divya et al. [23] investigated the influence of variable fluid prop-
erties on the peristaltic flow of a Casson fluid through a non-uniform channel subjected
to a radial magnetic field, and concluded that temperature rises with increasing variable
thermal conductivity. Furthermore, Hadimani et al. [24] analysed the peristaltic flow of
an Eyring-Powell fluid under variable fluid parameters, employing perturbation methods
to obtain velocity and temperature solutions, which were subsequently illustrated graph-
ically. Iqbal and Abbasi [25] made a valuable contribution towards an enhanced under-
standing of magnetohydrodynamic peristaltic motion of non-Newtonian nanofluids un-
der variable thermal conductivity within arterial arteries. In the study by Shah et al. [26],
mixed convection, Ohmic heating, and viscous dissipation in a symmetric channel are ex-
amined in the peristaltic motion of a nanofluid with temperature-dependent thermal con-
ductivity. The results indicate that the interplay between the Grashof and Hartmann num-
bers demonstrates that an increase in nanomaterial concentration enhances heat transfer,
thereby benefiting the cooling of biomedical and technical devices. Tanveer et al. [27] ex-
amined the influence of variable viscosity, thermo-diffusion, and diffusion-thermo effects
in an inclined peristaltic channel. These findings are critical for blood flow modelling and
bioheat transfer analysis under variable thermal environments.
The Ree-Eyring model incorporates viscoelasticity and shear-dependent viscosity to
characterise non-Newtonian fluids. Representing the nonlinear relationship between
shear stress and shear rate, this model effectively captures the flow behaviour of complex
fluids such as biological fluids, polymer melts, and industrial lubricants. Applications of
the Ree-Eyring fluid model encompass advanced lubricants, biological joint lubrication,
and polymer processing. A thorough understanding of these fluid behaviours is essential
for improving the efficiency and performance of materials in the design and operation of
industrial processes and equipment. The subsequent studies focus on examining the flow
characteristics of Ree-Eyring fluids within peristaltic transport systems. Hayat et al. [28]
explored the impact of a rotating frame on heat transmission. Ijaz et al. [29] addressed
the flow of Ree-Eyring fluids responding to uniform magnetic fields in the peristalsis phe-
nomenon. Rajashekhar et al. [30] examined the peristaltic flow by considering mass and
heat transfer phenomena, emphasising the complex behaviour of Ree-Eyring liquids in
hemodynamic conditions. Developing this further, Balachandra et al. [31] explored the
effects of wall slip and variable liquid properties during peristalsis. Ajithkumar et al. [32]
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 5 of 27

examined the peristalsis across a flexible path, considering the impact of the magnetic
field, activation energy and chemical reaction. Recently, Rajshekhar et al. [33] studied the
effect of mass transfer by considering the wall characteristics and variable fluid properties.
Li et al. [34] analysed the substantial impact of the magnetic field on peristalsis and the
effect of variable liquid characteristics on temperature profiles. Abbas et al. [35] analysed
the entropy generation in a porous medium with slip conditions at the wall. The study
includes analytical solutions, and the variations are presented in graphical form. Addi-
tionally, studies by Sanil et al. [36, 37] incorporated the temperature-dependent variable
fluid properties under slip and convective boundary conditions, respectively. The study
uses a perturbation solution technique to handle the nonlinear nature of the governing
equations. This makes it possible to formally analyse the system’s behaviour under small
disturbances, enabling a better comprehension of its dynamics.
Entropy generation quantifies thermodynamic irreversibility arising from heat transfer,
fluid friction, and mass diffusion, representing the loss of useful energy due to non-ideal ef-
fects. In peristaltic flows, it serves as a key indicator of internal inefficiencies, where higher
entropy production implies greater energy loss and reduced performance. The concept
was first laid down by Bejan and Kestin [38], who formulated entropy generation minimi-
sation (EGM) as a technique for the optimisation of thermal and fluid systems which have
lately been extended to the more complicated peristaltic flows combining non-Newtonian
fluids, MHD effects, and nanofluid behaviour. Farooq et al. [39] studied the peristaltic
movement of a viscous fluid filled with hybrid nanoparticles under the joint effects of
non-linear radiation, slip conditions, and entropy optimisation. Proceeding with the non-
Newtonian fluids, Khan et al. [40] treated magneto-Carreau nano liquids in peristaltic
channels undergoing variable viscosity and thermal conductivity. The investigation incor-
porated heat transfer irreversibility to provide insight into the role of electromagnetic and
thermophysical traits on entropy production. In a related study, Farooq et al. [41] applied
the EGM framework to magneto-peristaltic flows with variable fluid properties, revealing
that both magnetic field intensity and viscosity variability play critical roles in optimis-
ing entropy distribution along the channel. Further, Bibi et al. [42] analysed peristaltic
transport of Sisko fluids with variable thermal and viscous properties, emphasising the
shear-thinning behaviour on entropy generation. Similarly, Hayat et al. [43] examined the
radiative peristaltic flow of nanofluids with variable viscosity, establishing that thermal ra-
diation and nanoparticle dynamics significantly influence entropy production, especially
in biomedical contexts. To address the physiologically relevant configurations, Shah et
al. [44] employed the Ellis fluid model under asymmetric channel configurations and slip
boundary conditions, exploring fluid friction irreversibility and its coupling with heat and
mass transfer. The results highlighted the criticality of wall compliance and slip effects in
controlling entropy generation in biological conduits. Recently, Farooq et al. [45] studied
Johnson-Segalman fluids under MHD conditions with chemical reactions, demonstrat-
ing the interplay of chemical kinetics with viscous and magnetic effects to alter entropy
profiles in peristaltic systems.
The dynamics of peristaltic motion in Ree-Eyring fluids have received considerable at-
tention; however, the influence of temperature-dependent fluid properties have not been
thoroughly investigated. This research fills this void by integrating variable viscosity and
thermal conductivity effects into the entropy generation analysis within the flow frame-
work. Employing standard simplifying assumptions alongside a perturbative methodol-
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 6 of 27

Figure 1 Geometry of the physical model

ogy, the study examines critical flow and thermal transport phenomena. Graphical repre-
sentations elucidate the impact of various parameters, providing meaningful implications
for physiological contexts, including circulatory flow through narrowed arterial passages.
This research is motivated by the following practical objectives:
• To analyse the impact of variable thermal conductivity on peristaltic blood flow, with
implications for thermal regulation in microcirculatory systems and heat-sensitive
drug delivery.
• To evaluate the impact of temperature-dependent viscosity on velocity and
temperature fields, aiding in designing biomedical pumps and perfusion systems
where fluid rheology varies with temperature.
• To investigate the effects of wall parameters on flow behaviour, relevant to
bio-prosthetic device optimisation and microchannel transport.
• To evaluate the impact of the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter on bolus formation,
providing valuable insights into intestinal transport modelling and the development of
bolus-driven therapeutic systems.
• To investigate the impact of variable fluid properties on entropy generation and Bejan
number.

2 Mathematical formulation of the problem

The current study aims to investigate an incompressible, viscous fluid flowing through a
uniform channel with flexible walls. The study considers the fully developed peristaltic
mechanism of the liquid. The simulation of peristaltic sinusoidal wave trains is carried
out using the non-Newtonian Ree-Eyring fluid model, which considers the influence of
temperature-dependent thermal conductivity and viscosity variations. The deformation
caused by peristalsis in the channel walls is given by:

[︃ ]︃
(︁ )︁ ′ 2π (︁
′
)︁
h X, t = a + b Sin X – ct , (1)
λ

where h is a uniform wave in which t is time, a′ is a uniform radius, c is constant wave

speed and b′ is wave amplitude. The geometry of the physical model is represented as
given in Fig. 1.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 7 of 27

2.1 Governing equations

The governing equations of the flow problem are given as:

∂U ∂V
+ = 0, (2)
∂X ∂Y
(︄ )︄
∂U ∂U ∂U ∂P ∂τ XX ∂τ XY
ρ +U +V =– + + , (3)
∂t ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂X ∂Y
(︄ )︄
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂P ∂τ YY ∂τ XY
ρ +U +V =– + + , (4)
∂t ∂X ∂Y ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
(︄ )︄ (︄ )︄ (︄ )︄
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂U ∂V
ρcp +U +V = κ(T) + κ(T) + τ XX + τ YY
∂t ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂X ∂Y ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
(︄ )︄
∂V ∂U
+τ XY + , (5)
∂X ∂Y
[︄(︄ )︄]︄ [︄ ]︄ [︄ ]︄
∂C ∂C ∂C ∂ 2C ∂ 2C D m KT ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 T
+U +V = Dm 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
. (6)
∂t ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y Tm ∂X ∂Y

If the wave frame (x, y) contains the velocity components (u, v), then
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁
x = X – ct, y = Y , u x, y = U X, Y , t – c, v x, y = V X, Y , t , p x, y = P X, Y , t ,
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁
T x, y = T X, Y , t , C x, y = C X, Y , t . (7)

The dimensionless quantities used in the study are introduced:

x y u v a′ pa′ 2 a′ c μ0 μ ψ
x= , y= ′, u= , v= , δ = , p= , Re = ,ϑ= , μ0 = , ψ ′ = ′ ,
λ a c cδ λ μ0 λc ϑ ρ μ ac
b a′ τ xx a′ τ xy a′ τ yy μ0 ρDm KT T0 –τ a′ 3
ε= ′
, τxx = , τxy = , τyy = , Sc = , Sr = , E1 = ,
a μ0 c μ0 c μ0 c ρDm Tm μ0 C0 λμ30 c
n1 ca′ 3 n2 a′ 3 m1 a ′ 3 Ha′ tc μ0 cp c2
E2 = 3
, E3 = 3 , E4 = 5 , E5 = , t = , Pr = , Ec = ,
λ μ0 λ μ0 λ μ0 λμ0 c λ k0 cp T0
1 T – T0 C – C0 h
Br = EcPr, β = ,θ= ,σ= , h = ′ = 1 + εSin [2π(x – t)] . (8)
μ0 BC T0 C0 a

On incorporating Eqs. (7) and (8) into Eqs. (2)–(6) and assuming a low Reynolds number
and a long wavelength approximation, the non-dimensional equations that govern the flow
take the following form:

∂p ∂τxy
= , (9)
∂x ∂y
∂p
= 0, (10)
∂y
{︃ }︃
∂ ∂θ ∂u
κ (θ ) + Brτxy = 0, (11)
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂ 2σ ∂ 2θ
2
+ ScSr 2 = 0. (12)
∂y ∂y
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 8 of 27

The boundary conditions, expressed in nondimensional terms, are:

∂u ∂θ ∂σ
= 0; = 0; = 0; at y = 0, (13)
∂y ∂y ∂y
u = –1; θ = 1; σ = 1; at y = h. (14)

The long-wavelength and low Reynolds number assumptions simplify peristaltic trans-
port modelling by emphasising viscous-dominated, laminar behaviour typical of phys-
iological and microfluidic systems. Modelling the fluid as incompressible and non-
Newtonian with sinusoidal wall motion captures essential biological dynamics, while in-
corporating wall-fluid interactions under no-slip conditions ensures accurate prediction
of velocity and heat transfer near boundaries. These assumptions, alongside temperature-
dependent viscosity and thermal conductivity, enhance the analysis of biomedical and
industrial peristaltic applications.

2.2 Ree-Eyring fluid model

The Ree-Eyring fluid model is a non-Newtonian framework that effectively characterises
shear-thinning fluids at moderate to high shear rates, without yield stress. Derived from
molecular flow theory, it is particularly suited to systems where nonlinear viscosity is pro-
nounced. The model has been extensively applied in biomedical contexts—such as blood
analogues, peristaltic pumping, endoscopy, and microcirculation—and in industrial pro-
cesses including polymer processing, lubrication, and slurry transport at high shear. Its
ability to capture temperature-dependent viscosity makes it valuable for studies of heat
and mass transfer in microchannel heat exchangers, drug delivery devices, and reactors.
By accurately representing complex rheological behaviour, the Ree-Eyring model supports
optimised system performance, energy efficiency, and improved process control.
The basic equation for Ree-Eyring fluid is expressed as:
(︄ )︄
∂Vi 1 –1 1 ∂Vi
τ ij = μ(T) + Sinh . (15)
∂Yj B C ∂Yj

Since Sinh–1 A ≈ A for | A |≤ 1, (where A represent a general mathematical term), then

(︄ )︄
(︁ )︁ ∂Vi 1 1 ∂Vi
τ ij = μ T + , (16)
∂Yj B C ∂Yj

(︁ )︁
where, B and C are the material parameters and Vi = U, V and Yj = (X, Y ).
On substituting Eqs. (7) and (8) in Eq. (16) and assuming long wavelength and a low
Reynolds number, the nondimensional equation for the Ree-Eyring fluid can be written
as:

∂u
τxy = (μ (θ ) + β) . (17)
∂y

The Ree-Eyring fluid model is chiefly applied in engineering tasks like polymer extrusion
and lubrication that require accurate modelling of shear-thinning and temperature effects.
While blood is usually modelled with Casson or Carreau-Yasuda fluids, the Ree-Eyring
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 9 of 27

model is suitable for simulating shear-thinning in specific cases, such as pharmaceutical

suspensions in microfluidics. Its use in biomedical flow simulations, including peristaltic
drug delivery and endoscopic transport, enhances understanding of non-Newtonian be-
haviour, supporting industrial and medical device design under diverse conditions.

2.3 Variable fluid properties

Variable fluid properties are crucial in environmental and biomedical engineering, influ-
encing pollutant dispersion, climate modelling, blood flow dynamics, and drug delivery
systems. Temperature-dependent variations in properties like viscosity, density, and ther-
mal conductivity significantly affect processes such as lubrication, heat transfer, and sys-
tem performance. Considering these variable properties is essential for the effective design
and optimisation of engineering systems across multiple industries.
The nondimensional formulations representing viscosity and thermal conductivity de-
pendent on temperature is expressed as follows:

μ (θ ) = 1 – α1 θ for α1 ≪ 1, (18)

κ (θ ) = 1 + α2 θ for α2 ≪ 1, (19)

where α1 denotes the viscosity coefficient and α2 represents the thermal conductivity co-
efficient.

2.4 Wall equation

The equation for elastic wall motion is taken as follows:

L (h) = P – P0 . (20)

The pressure exerted on the exterior wall because of muscular tension is indicated as
P0 (= 0), with membrane stretching being influenced by the level of viscous damping. It is
assumed that the horizontal displacement of the compliant wall is negligible, given that
the walls are treated as inextensible.
Additionally, the linear operator L is referenced as [31]:

∂2 ∂2 ∂ ∂4
L = –τ + m 1 + n1 + n2 + H, (21)
∂x2 ∂t 2 ∂t ∂x4

where, τ is the plate tension, m1 is the coefficient of mass characterisation, n1 is the coef-
ficient of the wall damping force, n2 is the plate rigidity, H is the spring stiffness.

3 Solution methodology
This section focuses on resolving the mathematical model previously formulated. The pro-
nounced nonlinearities present in the governing equations render an explicit closed-form
solution unattainable. Hence, a perturbative method is adopted to approximate the flow
and thermal variables, particularly under conditions characterised by minimal fluctua-
tions in thermal conductivity and viscosity. The ensuing solution embodies this method-
ological framework.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 10 of 27

3.1 Perturbation technique

The perturbation method simplifies complex fluid flow problems, such as peristaltic mo-
tions of Ree-Eyring fluids with variable properties, by expanding solutions in terms of
small parameters. This approach yields analytical or semi-analytical results, making non-
linear equations more tractable and enabling rapid computations. Perturbation solutions
provide clear insight into parameter effects and serve as useful benchmarks for validating
numerical models, especially in the early stages of design.
Solutions for the expressions of velocity and temperature profiles are obtained via the
series perturbation method, as presented below:

u = Σα1n un , (22a)

θ = Σα1n θn . (22b)

3.2 Velocity expression

Ignoring the terms O(α12 ) and above leads to the expression for velocity in Eq. (22a), which
is obtained as

u = u0 + α1 u1 . (23)

Substituting Eqs. (17) and (23) in Eq. (9) and grouping, the following system of equations
is obtained with respective boundary conditions.

3.2.1 Zeroth-order system

(︁ )︁
∂u0 P–f
= y, (24)
∂y (1 + β)
∂u0
= 0 at y = 0 and u0 = –1 at y = h. (25)
∂y

3.2.2 First-order system

∂u1 θ0 ∂u0
= , (26)
∂y (1 + β) ∂y
∂u1
= 0 at y = 0 and u1 = 0 at y = h. (27)
∂y

Here,
(︃(︃ )︃ )︃
∂p E5 E3
P= = 8π 3 ϵ –E1 – E2 + 4π 2 E4 + cos (2π (x – t)) + sin (2π (x – t)) .
∂x 4π 2 2π
(28)

3.3 Temperature expression

By neglecting the terms O(α12 ) and above in Eq. (22b), one may consider the expression for
the temperature function as

θ = θ0 + α1 θ1 . (29)
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 11 of 27

Substituting Eq. (29) in Eq. (11) and grouping, the following system of equations for
temperature is obtained with respective boundary conditions.

3.3.1 Zeroth-order system

∫︂ (︃ )︃2
∂θ0 ∂u0
(1 + α2 θ0 ) + Br (1 + β) dy = 0, (30)
∂y ∂y
∂θ0
= 0 at y = 0 and θ0 = 1 at y = h. (31)
∂y

3.3.2 First-order system

∫︂ [︄ (︃ )︃ (︃ )︃ (︃ )︃2 ]︄
∂θ1 ∂θ0 ∂u0 ∂u1 ∂u0
(1 + α2 θ0 ) + α2 θ1 + Br 2 (1 + β) – θ0 dy = 0,
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
(32)
∂θ1
= 0 at y = 0 and θ1 = 0 at y = h. (33)
∂y

The Eqs. (30) and (32) are characterised as nonlinear. Therefore, the double perturbation
technique is employed to derive the solutions effectively.

j
θi = Σα2 θij , where0 ≤ j ≤ n. (34)
(︁ )︁
To obtain the analysis of temperature solutions, the higher-order terms, i.e., O α22 are
excluded, thereby focusing on the lower-order terms. This methodological choice facili-
tates the derivation of the following equations:

θ0 = θ00 + α2 θ01 , (35a)

θ1 = θ10 + α2 θ11 . (35b)

Similarly, using Eq. (35a) in Eqs. (30)–(31), the following equations are obtained for the
temperature with respective boundary conditions:

3.3.3 Zeroth-order system

∫︂ (︃ )︃2
∂θ00 ∂u0
+ Br (1 + β) dy = 0, (36)
∂y ∂y
∂θ00
= 0 at y = 0 and θ00 = 1 at y = h. (37)
∂y

3.3.4 First-order system

∂θ01 ∂θ00
+ θ00 = 0, (38)
∂y ∂y
∂θ01
= 0 at y = 0 and θ01 = 0 at y = h. (39)
∂y

Similarly, using Eq. (35b) in Eqs. (32)–(33), the following equations are obtained for the
temperature with respective boundary conditions:
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 12 of 27

3.3.5 Zeroth-order system

∫︂ [︄ (︃ )︃ (︃ )︃ (︃ )︃ ]︄
∂θ10 ∂u0 ∂u1 ∂u0 2
+ Br 2 (1 + β) – θ00 dy = 0, (40)
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂θ10
= 0 at y = 0 and θ10 = 0 at y = h. (41)
∂y

3.3.6 First-order system

∫︂ [︄ (︃ )︃2 ]︄
∂θ11 ∂θ10 ∂θ00 ∂u0
+ θ00 + θ10 – Br θ01 dy = 0, (42)
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂θ11 ∂θ11
= 0 at y = 0 and θ11 + η2 = 0 at y = h. (43)
∂y ∂y

By solving Eqs. (24)–(27) and (36)–(43) simultaneously, with respective boundary con-
ditions, the expression for the velocity function is obtained as:

(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁3 (︁ )︁
P–f 2 P–f 7 P–f
u= y – α1 Br y + α1 D 1 y3 + C1 + C2
2 (1 + β) 168 (1 + β)3 6 (1 + β)2
[︄ (︁ )︁5 (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁3 ]︄
P–f 11 P–f 3 P–f 7
+α1 α2 –Br y + D2 y + BrD1 y . (44)
6336 (1 + β)4 6 (1 + β)2 168 (1 + β)3

The expression for the temperature function is obtained as:

(︁ )︁2 [︄ (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ]︄

P–f P – f P – f
θ = –Br y4 + D1 + α2 –Br2 y8 + D1 Br y4 + D2
12 (1 + β) 288 (1 + β)2 12 (1 + β)
[︄ (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ]︄
P–f 8 P–f 4
+ α1 Br y – D1 Br y + D3
672 (1 + β)3 12 (1 + β)2
⎡ (︁ )︁6 (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ⎤
13 P–f P–f P–f
Br3 133056(1+β)4 y12 – D1 Br2 144(1+β)3 y8 + D21 Br 12(1+β)2 y4
+ α1 α2 ⎣ (︁ )︁2 (︁ )︁2 ⎦. (45)
P–f P–f
+D2 12(1+β) y4 + D3 Br 12(1+β) y4 + D4

Solving Eq. (16) with the respective boundary conditions, the concentration solution is
obtained as:

(︁
)︁2 [︄ (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ]︄
P–f 4 2 P–f 8 P–f
σ = –Br y + α2 –Br y + D1 Br y4
12 (1 + β) 288 (1 + β)2 12 (1 + β)
[︄ (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ]︄
P–f 8 P–f 4
+α1 Br y – D1 Br y + C3
672 (1 + β)3 12 (1 + β)2
⎡ (︁ )︁6 (︁ )︁4 (︁ )︁2 ⎤
13 P–f P–f P–f
Br3 133056(1+β)4 y12 – D1 Br2 144(1+β)3 y8 + D21 Br 12(1+β)2 y4
+α1 α2 ⎣ (︁ )︁2 (︁ )︁2 ⎦. (46)
P–f 4 P–f 4
+D2 12(1+β) y + D3 Br 12(1+β) y
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 13 of 27

∂ψ
The expression for the stream function is obtained by solving the equation u = ∂y
. It is
given as follows:
(︁ )︁ (︁ )︁3 (︁ )︁
P–f 3 P–f 8 P–f
ψ= y – α1 Br y + α1 D 1 y4 + C2 y + C1 y
6 (1 + β) 1344 (1 + β)3 24 (1 + β)2
[︄ (︁ )︁5 (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁3 ]︄
P–f 12 P–f 4 P–f 8
+α1 α2 –Br y + D2 y + BrD1 y . (47)
76032 (1 + β)4 24 (1 + β)2 1344 (1 + β)3

Where, Ck , k = 1 – 3 and Dm , m = 1 – 4 are given in the Appendix.

3.4 General formulation of local entropy generation

The dimensional local volumetric entropy generation (SGen ) in transport problems with
heat transfer, viscosity variation, and species diffusion is generally given by Shah et al. [44]
as:

(︁ )︁ ⎛(︄ )︄2 (︄ )︄2 ⎞ (︄ (︄ )︄)︄

κ T ∂T ∂T 1 ∂U ∂V ∂V ∂U
SGen = ⎝ + ⎠ + τ XX + τ YY + τ XY +
θ02 ∂X ∂Y θ0 ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
(︄ )︄2 (︄ )︄
R∗ D ∂C ∂C R∗ D ∂C ∂T ∂C ∂T
+ + + + . (48)
C0 ∂X ∂Y θ0 ∂X ∂X ∂Y ∂Y

In the waveform,

(︁ )︁ ⎛(︄ )︄2 (︄ )︄2 ⎞ (︃ (︃ )︃)︃

κ T ∂T ∂T 1 ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
SGen = ⎝ + ⎠ + τ xx + τ yy + τ xy +
θ02 ∂x ∂y θ0 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
(︄ )︄2 (︄ )︄
R∗ D ∂C ∂C R∗ D ∂C ∂T ∂C ∂T
+ + + + . (49)
C0 ∂x ∂y θ0 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

3.4.1 Dimensionless entropy generation

Using non-dimensional variables, with velocities expressed in terms of stream functions,
and by applying the long wavelength and low Reynolds number approximations, the gov-
erning equations simplify considerably. By defining the non-dimensional temperature (θ ),
velocity (u), and concentration (σ ), and normalising the entropy generation expression
by a characteristic entropy generation rate, the dimensionless local entropy generation
number (Ns ), consistent with the modelled equations can be expressed in terms of contri-
butions from heat transfer, viscous dissipation, and species diffusion effects.
(︃ )︃2 (︃ )︃2 (︃ )︃ (︃ )︃
SGen dθ du L dσ 2 L dθ dσ
Ns = = (1 + α2 θ ) + Br(1 – α1 θ ) + 2 + ,
SG dy dy Λ dy Λ dy dy
⏞ ⏟⏟ ⏞ ⏞ ⏟⏟ ⏞ ⏞ ⏟⏟ ⏞
Heat transfer irreversibility Viscous dissipation Mass(Species)&Thermo–diffusion
(50)

R∗ D C0
2
k0 T0 T0
Where, SG = θ02 a′ 2
, Λ= θ0
, L= k0
,

Ns = NHeat + NViscous + NMass ,

Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 14 of 27

(︃ )︃2 (︃ )︃2
dθ du
NHeat = (1 + α2 θ ) , NViscous = Br(1 – α1 θ ) ,
dy dy
(︃ )︃2 (︃ )︃
L dσ L dθ dσ
NMass = + .
Λ2 dy Λ dy dy

3.5 Bejan number

The Bejan number (Be) is a dimensionless parameter widely used in thermodynamics and
fluid mechanics to quantify the relative contribution of different irreversibilities—typically
heat transfer and fluid friction—to the total entropy generation in a flow system. It is es-
pecially relevant in analysing thermal systems, heat exchangers, microchannels, and peri-
staltic flows.

Irreversibility due to heat transfer

Be =
Total irreversibility

For a typical dimensionless entropy generation equation involving heat and fluid friction,
the Bejan number is often expressed as given by Shah et al. [44]:

NHeat + NMass
Be =
Ns

or, specifically,

(︂ )︂2 (︂ )︂2 (︂ )︂
(1 + α2 θ ) dθ
dy
+ ΛL2 dσ dy
+ ΛL dθ dσ
dy dy
Be = (︂ )︂2 (︂ )︂2 (︂ )︂2 (︂ )︂ (51)
(1 + α2 θ ) dθ
dy
+ Br(1 – α 1 θ ) du
dy
+ Λ
L
2
dσ
dy
+ L dθ dσ
Λ dy dy

Where each term matches the corresponding entropy generation processes from heat
transfer, viscous dissipation, and mass diffusion.
A value of the Bejan number close to one implies that heat transfer irreversibility is the
primary contributor to the overall entropy generation, while a value near zero indicates
that viscous effects, mass diffusion, or thermo-diffusion are more significant. This param-
eter is particularly useful for analysing and optimising thermofluidic systems, as it helps
determine whether thermal, mechanical, or diffusive mechanisms are driving energy loss
in the form of entropy.

4 Results and discussion

The previous section used the perturbation technique to construct a semi-analytical so-
lution for fluid flow and heat and mass transmission exhibiting Ree-Eyring characteris-
tics through a uniform channel under varying conditions. This section investigates the
repercussions of fluid parameter variations in depth. MATLAB R2024a generates graph-
ical depictions of physiological activity measurements, incorporating flow variables into
the process. Figs. 2-10 provide additional explication regarding the impacts of physiolog-
ical components on temperature, velocity, concentration, and bolus formation.

4.1 Convergence of perturbation method

In the regular perturbation method, the solution is expanded as a power series in a small
parameter, say ξ , with a nonzero radius of convergence, so for sufficiently small ξ , the series
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 15 of 27

Table 1 Convergence of Temperature Solution

y θ = θ00 θ = θ00 + α2 θ01 + α1 θ10 + α1 α2 θ11 Difference
-1 1.39698 1.39652 0.00046
-0.8 1.65319 1.65181 0.00138
-0.6 1.77469 1.77271 0.00198
-0.4 1.81982 1.81759 0.00223
-0.2 1.83024 1.82794 0.0023
0 1.83093 1.82863 0.0023
0.2 1.83024 1.82794 0.0023
0.4 1.81982 1.81759 0.00223
0.6 1.77469 1.77271 0.00198
0.8 1.65319 1.65181 0.00138
1.0 1.39698 1.39652 0.00046

converges smoothly to the exact solution. The error after truncating the series at the n-
th term is of order O(ξ n+1 ), meaning higher terms become increasingly small for small
ξ . Uniform convergence ensures the approximation remains valid across the domain as
ξ → 0. The double perturbation method extends regular perturbation by involving two
small parameters to address systems influenced by two distinct perturbative effects. The
double perturbation method converges similarly to the single-parameter case, so long as
both small parameters are sufficiently small and the system is regular. The leading error
after truncation at first order in both parameters is governed by the squares and products
of those parameters, providing a reliable and systematic way to estimate accuracy.
In the current study, the temperature solution is obtained by using the double perturba-
tion method involving two perturbation parameters α1 and α2 . As the series is truncated
at the 1st order, the error is of order max O(α12 , α22 ). The perturbation solution for temper-
ature (θ (y)) shows excellent convergence over y ∈ [–1, 1], with a maximum absolute error
around 0.0023, indicating a highly accurate approximation as seen in Table 1. The symmet-
ric and small errors align well with theoretical error estimates of order O(α12 , α22 ) for small
perturbation parameters. This confirms that the double perturbation method provides a
reliable and uniformly convergent solution within the problem’s parameter range.

4.2 Velocity profiles

Comprehending the flow of incompressible viscous fluids through channels is of the ut-
most importance in practical contexts. This knowledge is utilised to optimise blood flow
dynamics for medical interventions, design efficient piping systems in engineering, pre-
dict flood behaviour, and manage water resources sustainably in environmental studies.
Additionally, it plays a vital role in optimising heat transfer to maintain safe operating
temperatures in thermal management systems. This section examines the effects of mod-
ifying critical parameters on the velocity patterns. Figs. 2(a)-(e) illustrates the influence
of changes in various factors, including the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter, variable viscos-
ity, Brinkman number, thermal conductivity coefficient, and wall characteristics. As il-
lustrated in Fig. 2(a), an increase in the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter reduced the velocity
profile. The fluid model represents Newtonian behaviour when β = 0. It can be noted in
the figure that as non-Newtonian behaviour increases, velocity decreases. From this, one
can assume that variation in other parameters shows similar behaviour for Newtonian
and non-Newtonian cases, with better velocity when β = 0. In contrast, increases in the
variable viscosity improve the velocity profile, as seen in Fig. 2(b). An evident correlation
between increasing velocity and a rising Brinkman number trend is observed in Fig. 2(c).
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 16 of 27

Figure 2 Variation of velocity profiles when E1 = 0.3, E2 = 0.2, E3 = 0.01, E4 = 0.01, E5 = 0.01, β = 0.2,
x = 0.2, α1 = 0.02, α2 = 0.02, t = 0.1, ϵ = 0.3, Br = 2 for (a) Ree-Eyring fluid parameter, (b) Coefficient of
variable viscosity, (c) Brinkman number, (d) Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity, (e) Wall properties

The Brinkman number characterises the relative importance of viscous and inertial forces
in a fluid flow. A greater velocity indicates that the inertial forces are more significant than
the viscous forces and, hence, a more significant Brinkman number. This behaviour high-
lights fluid inertia in flow dynamics. Fig. 2(d) depicts the relationship between the thermal
conductivity coefficient and the velocity profiles, with the velocity decreasing as the ther-
mal conductivity coefficient increases. To provide insight into the physical properties of
the flexible wall, Fig. 2(e) shows a graphical representation of the effects that the elastic
parameters E1 , E2 , E3 , E4 , and E5 have on the velocity profiles. The velocity patterns in-
crease as the wall tension (E1 ), mass characterisation (E2 ), and wall-damping parameters
(E3 ) increase. Conversely, velocity profiles diminish as the rigidity (E4 ) and elasticity (E5 )
parameters of the wall increase.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 17 of 27

4.3 Temperature profiles

Temperature profiles are very useful in controlling heat exchangers, chemical reactors,
and environmental systems because they indicate the temperature distribution within a
system as a function of time and space. Under heat convection, they frequently display
parabolic characteristics, which facilitate precise forecasts of temperature distribution.
It provides the information to develop effective and safe maintenance systems for ther-
mal stresses. This study considers the effects of various fluid parameters such as viscosity,
Brinkman number, thermal conductivity and wall properties on multiple qualities, includ-
ing temperature trends. These influences are shown in Figs. 3(a)-(e). Fig. 3(a) depicts the
effect of the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter on the temperature profile. It is observed that
the temperature decreases with a rise in the fluid parameter β. In contrast, increasing
the variable viscosity increases the temperature profile, as seen in Fig. 3(b). This implies
that temperature distribution and fluid viscosity are related. Fig. 3(c) shows that as the
Brinkman number increases, indicating higher fluid inertia relative to viscous forces, the
temperature also rises, suggesting a correlation between flow dynamics and temperature.
In contrast, Fig. 3(d) illustrates a reduction in temperature as the thermal conductivity
coefficient increases. The graphical representation of the flexible wall’s physical features
is determined by the influence of the elastic factors E1 , E2 , E3 , E4 , and E5 on the temper-
ature pattern in Fig. 3(e). It has been noticed that as E1 , E2 , and E3 levels increase, so does
the temperature. Conversely, higher E4 , and E5 values indicate reverse actions. This study
contributes substantial knowledge regarding the influence of fluid and material properties
on temperature profiles within the system, thereby facilitating a thorough comprehension
of the thermal dynamics involved in intricate fluid-structure interactions.

4.4 Concentration profiles

Concentration profiles are crucial in understanding substance concentration variations
within a system over space and time. They are vital in chemical reactions, separation
processes, and environmental monitoring. These profiles are commonly observed in
diffusion-dominated systems and play a crucial role in accurately modelling and optimis-
ing substance transport and distribution. This knowledge improves process efficiency and
promotes environmental protection. This section discusses the impact of significant fac-
tors on the concentration distribution. Figs. 4(a)-(g) show the effect of varying parameters
on the concentration profiles. An increase in the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter results in
enhanced concentration profiles. On the contrary, as the variable viscosity increases, the
concentration pattern diminishes, as depicted in Fig. 4(b). Fig. 4(c) signifies a declining
trend in the concentration profile for an increase in the Brinkman number. On the con-
trary, Fig. 4(d) depicts an increasing concentration profile corresponding to an increased
thermal conductivity coefficient, suggesting that heat transfer properties can affect con-
centration distribution. This finding can have implications in thermal pollution studies or
heat exchanger design, where understanding heat and mass transfer coupling is crucial.
The progressive rise in Schmidt and Soret numbers exhibits a declining trend in the con-
centration profiles (See Figs. 4(e)-(f )), which are helpful in chemical reaction engineering
or the study of combustion, where chemical reactions and mass transfer processes are in-
volved. The determination of the graphical representation of the physical characteristics
of the flexible wall is contingent upon the impact of the elastic factors E1 , E2 , E3 , E4 , and
E5 on the concentration pattern depicted in Fig. 4(g). The concentration profile has been
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 18 of 27

Figure 3 Variation of temperature profiles when E1 = 0.3, E2 = 0.2, E3 = 0.01, E4 = 0.01, E5 = 0.01, β = 0.2,
x = 0.2, α1 = 0.02, α2 = 0.02, t = 0.1, ϵ = 0.3, Br = 2 for (a) Ree-Eyring fluid parameter, (b) Coefficient of
variable viscosity, (c) Brinkman number, (d) Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity, (e) Wall properties

observed to diminish with the increase in E1 , E2 , and E3 Parameters. Higher E4 and E5

readings, on the other hand, suggest the opposite behaviour. These insights contribute
to optimising various processes and systems, from environmental remediation to indus-
trial manufacturing, by improving our understanding of fluid behaviour and its interaction
with materials.

4.5 Entropy generation

The variation of entropy generation in the channel is evaluated for different key physi-
cal parameters using the dimensionless local entropy generation number. Figs. 5(a)-(d)
represent the influence of the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter (β), variable viscosity (α1 ),
Brinkman number (Br), and variable thermal conductivity (α2 ), respectively. Fig. 5(a) in-
dicates that changes in the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter, which modulates shear-thinning
non-Newtonian behaviour, decreases the entropy generation profile across the channel.
This implies that for Ree-Eyring fluids, entropy generation rates remain largely governed
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 19 of 27

Figure 4 Variation of Concentration profiles when ϵ = 0.3, β = 0.2, E1 = 0.3, E2 = 0.2,

E3 = 0.01, E4 = 0.01, E5 = 0.01, α1 = 0.02, α2 = 0.02, Br = 2, Sc = 1, Sr = 1, x = 0.2, (a) Ree-Eyring fluid parameter,
(b) Coefficient of variable viscosity, (c) Brinkman number, (d) Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity, (e)
Schmidt number, (f ) Soret number, (g) Wall properties
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 20 of 27

Figure 5 Variation of Entropy Generation when ϵ = 0.3, β = 0.2, E1 = 0.3, E2 = 0.2,

E3 = 0.01, E4 = 0.01, E5 = 0.01, α1 = 0.02, α2 = 0.02, Br = 2, Sc = 1, Sr = 1, x = 0.2, (a) Ree-Eyring fluid parameter,
(b) Coefficient of variable viscosity, (c) Brinkman number, (d) Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity

by heat transfer and viscous effects, rather than changes in fluid rheology under these
flow conditions. In Fig. 5(b), increasing the variable viscosity parameter results in a mod-
erate rise in entropy generation near the channel walls and decreases near the channel
centre. This is attributed to the fact that greater viscosity gradients enhance velocity gra-
dients, thereby increasing viscous dissipation. Fig. 5(c) clearly demonstrates that raising
the Brinkman number leads to a significant increase in total entropy generation through-
out the channel. The peak entropy generation is observed near the boundaries, while the
minimum remains at the channel centre. This is because a higher Brinkman number am-
plifies the effect of viscous dissipation; as a result, regions with steeper velocity gradients
(closer to the walls) exhibit higher irreversibility. Fig. 5(d) shows that higher values of the
thermal conductivity parameter reduce entropy generation across the channel width. This
reflects the increased importance of spatial variations in thermal conduction in determin-
ing irreversibility levels when conductivity is more sensitive to local temperature. These
results highlight the essential role of transport property variation and viscous dissipation
in entropy generation and provide practical insight for optimising thermofluidic system
design toward minimising energy losses and increasing efficiency.

4.6 Bejan number

Figs. 6(a)-(d) illustrates the behaviour of the Bejan number (Be) across the channel for vari-
ations in key physical parameters in a peristaltic flow governed by Ree-Eyring fluid char-
acteristics. The Ree-Eyring fluid parameter (β) controls the degree of non-Newtonian,
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 21 of 27

Figure 6 Variation of Bejan number (Be) when ϵ = 0.3, β = 0.2, E1 = 0.3, E2 = 0.2,
E3 = 0.01, E4 = 0.01, E5 = 0.01, α1 = 0.02, α2 = 0.02, Br = 2, Sc = 1, Sr = 1, x = 0.2, (a) Ree-Eyring fluid parameter,
(b) Coefficient of variable viscosity, (c) Brinkman number, (d) Coefficient of variable thermal conductivity

shear-thinning behaviour in the system. The Bejan number profiles for increasing β val-
ues nearly coincide, indicating that changes in non-Newtonian strength do not alter the
balance between heat transfer and viscous dissipation as illustrated in Fig. 6(a). Thus,
within the parameter range considered, the nonlinear rheology described by β has a neg-
ligible impact on the distribution or magnitude of entropy generation in the channel.
Fig. 6(b) shows that increasing the variable viscosity parameter (α1 ) raises the Bejan num-
ber throughout the channel, specifically near the walls. This indicates that higher effective
viscosity enhances the relative contribution of heat transfer irreversibility compared to
frictional irreversibility. The Brinkman number (Br) quantifies the effect of viscous heat-
ing. As Br increases, the Bejan number increases across the channel, as shown in Fig. 6(c).
This demonstrates that higher viscous dissipation shifts the entropy production balance
toward fluid friction. The effect of variable thermal conductivity parameter (α2 ) is pre-
sented in Fig. 6(d). It is noticed that increasing the thermal conductivity parameter de-
creases the Bejan number across the channel width. The reduction is most noticeable near
the boundaries, reflecting that temperature-dependent enhancements in thermal conduc-
tivity diminish entropy generation from heat transfer relative to friction. The Bejan num-
ber profiles briefly identify the regimes and regions where heat transfer or frictional effects
dominate entropy generation. Understanding the influence of these key parameters pro-
vides valuable guidance for the thermodynamic optimisation of peristaltic systems using
Ree-Eyring fluids.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 22 of 27

Figure 7 Variation of streamlines for (a) β = 0.1 and (b) β = 0.2

Figure 8 Variation of streamlines for (a) α1 = 0.01 and (b) α1 = 0.04

4.7 Streamlines
Peristalsis is notably characterised by the formation of boluses, which play a vital role in
enabling the transport of materials through tubular conduits such as the digestive system.
The presence of these boluses is essential for effectively propelling substances along these
passages. The present study reveals a correlation between the increasing fluid parameter
and decreased boluses, as shown in Fig. 7. This implies that alterations in the charac-
teristics of the fluid can impact the creation or occurrence of boluses within the system.
Fig. 8 depicts a rise in the number of boluses when the coefficient of variable viscosity is
increased. An opposite behaviour is noticed in the case of the coefficient of thermal con-
ductivity, as observed in Fig. 9. This discovery underlines the influence of variable fluid
properties in determining boluses’ properties, potentially impacting their movement and
function within the system. Fig. 10 investigates the impact of the Brinkman Number on
the confined bolus. A negligible increase in the bolus size is noticed for the increased
Brinkman number. The research findings highlight an intricate connection between fluid
dynamics and bolus formation, which could significantly affect the behaviour of boluses
in the system.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 23 of 27

Figure 9 Variation of streamlines for (a) α2 = 0.01 and (b) α2 = 0.04

Figure 10 Variation of streamlines for (a) Br = 1.5 and (b) Br = 2

5 Conclusion
This study compiles comprehensive research on peristaltic transport for a non-Newtonian
Ree-Eyring fluid with temperature-dependent viscosity and thermal conductivity. The
governing equations were solved analytically using perturbation theory under long-wave
and low Reynolds number. The study shows the dependence of the temperature variation
of a fluid property on velocity, temperature, and pressure distribution through the chan-
nel.
• A rise in the Ree-Eyring fluid parameter decreases velocity and temperature.
Understanding Ree-Eyring fluid parameter fluctuations on velocity and temperature
profiles can optimise machinery lubricant compositions for performance and
longevity.
• Wall properties such as tension, mass, and damping can increase fluid velocity and
temperature profiles, while elasticity and rigidity reduce them. By adjusting these
factors, researchers can enhance fluid flow, mixing efficiency, and the precision of
diagnostic and medication delivery systems.
• A rise in the Brinkman number is indicative of elevated temperature profiles.
Understanding the impact of the Brinkman number on temperature trends can
facilitate optimising geothermal energy extraction procedures, thereby reducing
environmental harm and increasing energy output.
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 24 of 27

• Increased Schmidt and Soret numbers show diminishing concentration profiles.

Understanding the effects of these characteristics on concentration distribution can
help manage pollution and pollutants in natural systems, maintaining environmental
sustainability.
• Changes in viscosity and thermal conductivity coefficient have opposite effects on the
characteristics of boluses. Understanding the fluid factors that influence bolus
formation leads to the development of drug delivery devices, resulting in efficient and
focused drug administration.
• For all parametric variations, the Bejan number is lowest at the channel centre (where
velocity gradients, and thus viscous effects, are strongest) and increases towards the
walls (where thermal gradients become more influential).
• Near the walls, the entropy generation rate sharply increases due to stronger
gradients, with viscous and thermal effects both contributing depending on the
controlled parameter.
This research, pertinent to biomedical and industrial systems employing peristaltic mo-
tion with thermally sensitive fluids, demonstrates that increased viscosity enhances the
axial velocity, while higher thermal conductivity reduces the axial velocity—thereby influ-
encing overall flow structure. These insights facilitate the optimisation of heat and mass
transfer in applications such as drug delivery, dialysis, lab-on-a-chip technology, and mi-
croreactors. By incorporating wall elasticity and time-dependent fluid properties, the pre-
sented model enables more accurate predictions and real-time system calibration, ulti-
mately improving efficiency and adaptability in devices with flexible boundaries, such as
arterial flows.

Appendix
(︁ )︁2
P–f
D1 = 1 + Br h4 ,
12(1 + β)
(︄ (︁ )︁2 )︄ (︁ )︁2
P–f 4 P–f
D2 = Br h – D1 Br h4 ,
24 (1 + β) 12 (1 + β)
(︄ (︁ )︁2 )︄ (︁ )︁2
P–f 4 P–f
D3 = D1 – Br h Br h4 ,
56 (1 + β) 12 (1 + β)2
(︁ )︁6
13 P – f
D4 = –Br3 h12
133056 (1 + β)4
(︁ )︁2 (︄ (︁ )︁2 )︄
P–f 4 2 P–f 4 2
+ h D1 Br h – D1 Br – D2 – D3 Br ,
12 (1 + β)2 12 (1 + β)
(︁ )︁
P–f
C1 = –1 – h2 ,
2 (1 + β)
(︁ )︁3 (︁ )︁
P–f 7 P–f
C2 = Br h – D1 h3
168 (1 + β)3 6 (1 + β)2
[︄ (︁ )︁5 (︁ )︁ (︁ )︁3 ]︄
P–f P – f P – f
– α2 –Br h11 + D2 h3 + BrD1 h7 ,
6336 (1 + β)4 6 (1 + β)2 168 (1 + β)3
Sanil et al. Boundary Value Problems (2025) 2025:143 Page 25 of 27

(︁ )︁2
P–f
C3 = 1 + Br h4
12 (1 + β)
(︁ )︁2 [︄ (︄ (︁ )︁2 )︄ (︄ (︁ )︁2 )︄]︄
P–f 4 P–f 4 P–f
– Br h α2 D1 – Br h – α1 D 1 – h4
12 (1 + β)2 24 (1 + β) 56 (1 + β)
[︄ (︁ )︁6 (︁ )︁4
3 13 P – f 12 2 P–f
– α1 α2 Br h – D1 Br h8
133056 (1 + β)4 144 (1 + β)3
(︁ )︁2 ]︄
(︁ 2 )︁ P – f
+ D1 Br + D2 + D3 Br h4 .
12 (1 + β)

Acknowledgements
The authors extend their gratitude to Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE) for providing the necessary facilities
and resources to carry out this research. The authors also acknowledge the support and encouragement from the
Department of Mathematics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal, and Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Ballari. No professional writing services or materials were utilized in the preparation of this manuscript.

Author contributions
1. PS: Drafting and solution of the model. 2. RC: Conceptualisation and modelling. 3. MG: Overall supervision of the
manuscript. 4. MMR: Typing and graphical representation. 5. HV and 6. KVP: Model validation and execution.

Funding information
Open access funding provided by Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal. No external funding has been
obtained for the current study.

Data availability
No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Author details
1
Department of Mathematics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India.
2
Department of Mathematics, Manipal Institute of Technology Bengaluru, Manipal Academy of Higher Education,
Manipal, India. 3 Department of Mathematics, Vijayanagara Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari, India.

Received: 16 May 2025 Accepted: 23 August 2025

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