4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

This is a copy of a conversation between ChatGPT & Anonymous.

Report conversation

Passive Sensors Resistive Sensors(Measuring Instruments)

Passive Sensors (Measuring Instruments)

Definition:
Passive sensors are devices that do not generate their own electrical signal. Instead, they
require an external power source and work by modifying electrical parameters such as
resistance, capacitance, or inductance when exposed to a physical quantity.

Key Features:

Need external excitation (voltage or current)

Output is a change in electrical property
Simple construction and widely used
Less self-generated noise compared to active sensors

Examples:
Resistive sensors
Capacitive sensors
Inductive sensors

Resistive Sensors
Definition:
Resistive sensors are a type of passive sensor in which the resistance changes due to
variation in a physical parameter such as temperature, pressure, displacement, or light.

Principle:
The basic relation is:

L
R = ρA ​

Where:

R = Resistance
ρ = Resistivity of material
L = Length
[Link] 1/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

A = Cross-sectional area
Changes in physical conditions affect L, A, or ρ, thereby changing resistance.

Types of Resistive Sensors

1. Potentiometer (Displacement Sensor)
Measures linear or angular displacement
Resistance varies with position
2. Strain Gauge
Measures strain (deformation)
Used in load cells and stress analysis
3. RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
Resistance increases with temperature
High accuracy and stability
4. Thermistor
Temperature-sensitive resistor
Two types:
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)
5. Photoresistor (LDR)
Resistance decreases with increase in light intensity

Advantages of Resistive Sensors

Simple and inexpensive
Easy signal conditioning
High sensitivity (especially strain gauges and thermistors)

Disadvantages
Requires external power supply
Affected by temperature and environmental conditions
Mechanical wear (in potentiometers)

Applications
Temperature measurement (RTD, Thermistor)
Position sensing (Potentiometer)
Force and pressure measurement (Strain gauge)

[Link] 2/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Light detection (LDR)

If you want, I can also give a comparison between resistive, capacitive, and inductive
sensors or provide exam-style short notes 👍

Potentiometers

Potentiometers (Measuring Instruments)

Definition:
A potentiometer is a resistive type passive sensor used to measure linear or angular
displacement by converting mechanical movement into a change in resistance.

Construction
A typical potentiometer consists of:
A resistive element (wire-wound, carbon, or conductive plastic)
A sliding contact (wiper)
Two fixed terminals connected to the ends of the resistive track

Working Principle
When a voltage is applied across the resistive element, moving the wiper changes the
output voltage.

The output voltage is proportional to position:

Vout = Vin LL1

​ ​
​

Where:

Vout = Output voltage

​

Vin = Input voltage

​

L1 = Length up to wiper position

​

L = Total length of resistive element

👉 This shows that displacement is directly proportional to output voltage.

[Link] 3/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Types of Potentiometers
1. Linear Potentiometer
Measures straight-line displacement
Used in position sensing systems
2. Rotary Potentiometer
Measures angular displacement
Common in volume controls, knobs
3. Digital Potentiometer
Electronic version controlled by digital signals
No mechanical movement

Advantages
Simple and low cost
High output signal (no amplification needed in many cases)
Easy to use and understand
Good resolution

Disadvantages
Mechanical wear and tear (due to wiper contact)
Limited life span
Sensitive to dust and vibration
Friction can affect accuracy

Applications
Position measurement in machines
Volume control in audio devices
Robotics and automation systems
Calibration and testing equipment

If you want, I can also give neat diagrams, derivations, or a comparison with LVDT
(important exam question).

[Link] 4/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Strain Gages

Strain Gauges (Resistive Sensors)

Definition:
A strain gauge is a passive resistive sensor used to measure strain (deformation) in an
object. When a material is stretched or compressed, the strain gauge attached to it
experiences the same deformation, causing a change in its resistance.

Principle of Operation
When a conductor is stretched:
Length L increases
Cross-sectional area A decreases
Resistance increases

This change in resistance is proportional to the applied strain.

The relationship is:

ΔR/R
GF = ε
​

Where:

GF = Gauge factor
ΔR = Change in resistance
R = Original resistance
ε = Strain
👉 This equation shows how sensitive the strain gauge is to deformation.

Construction
A typical strain gauge consists of:
A thin metallic wire or foil grid
Mounted on a flexible backing (insulating material)
Cemented onto the surface of the object being measured

[Link] 5/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Working
1. The strain gauge is bonded to a structure.
2. When the structure is subjected to force:
It deforms (strain occurs)
The strain gauge also deforms
3. This causes a change in resistance
4. The small resistance change is measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit

Types of Strain Gauges

1. Wire Strain Gauge
Made of fine wire
Less common now
2. Foil Strain Gauge
Made of metal foil
Most widely used
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge
Very high sensitivity
More temperature-sensitive

Advantages
High accuracy
Small size and lightweight
Suitable for dynamic measurements
Wide range of applications

Disadvantages
Requires careful installation
Sensitive to temperature changes
Needs signal conditioning (amplification)
Fragile

Applications
Load cells (weight measurement)
Stress and strain analysis in structures
[Link] 6/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Pressure measurement
Aerospace and civil engineering testing

If you want, I can explain Wheatstone bridge working with strain gauges or give a
diagram-based answer for exams.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Definition:
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a passive resistive sensor used to measure
temperature by correlating the change in electrical resistance of a metal with
temperature.

Principle of Operation
In RTDs, resistance increases with temperature (positive temperature coefficient).

The relationship is approximately:

RT = R0 (1 + αT )
​ ​

Where:

RT = Resistance at temperature T
​

R0 = Resistance at reference temperature (usually 0°C)

​

α = Temperature coefficient of resistance

T = Temperature
👉 This shows a linear relationship (for a limited temperature range).

Construction
An RTD typically consists of:
A pure metal element (usually platinum, nickel, or copper)
Wound as a fine wire coil or deposited as a thin film
Enclosed in a protective sheath (ceramic or glass)
[Link] 7/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Common type:
Platinum RTD (Pt100) → Resistance = 100 Ω at 0°C

Working
1. RTD is placed in the environment where temperature is to be measured
2. Temperature changes → resistance of metal changes
3. This resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge or ohmmeter
4. The measured resistance is converted into temperature

Types of RTDs
1. Wire-wound RTD
High accuracy
Used in laboratories
2. Thin-film RTD
Compact and faster response
Used in industrial applications

Advantages
High accuracy and repeatability
Good stability over time
Nearly linear output
Wide temperature range (−200°C to 600°C approx.)

Disadvantages
Expensive (especially platinum RTDs)
Slower response compared to thermistors
Requires external power
Sensitive to mechanical shock

Applications
Industrial temperature measurement
Process control systems
HVAC systems
[Link] 8/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Laboratory and precision measurements

RTD vs Thermistor (Quick Insight)

RTD → More accurate, stable, wider range
Thermistor → More sensitive, faster, cheaper

If you want, I can give a comparison table (RTD vs Thermistor vs Thermocouple) or a

numerical problem for practice.

Thermistors

Thermistors (Resistive Sensors)

Definition:
A thermistor is a temperature-sensitive passive resistive sensor whose resistance changes
significantly with temperature. It is made from semiconductor materials (metal oxides),
giving it much higher sensitivity than RTDs.

Principle of Operation
Thermistors exhibit a non-linear relationship between resistance and temperature.

For most thermistors (NTC type), resistance decreases as temperature increases:

R T = R 0 e ( T T0 )
β 1− 1 ​

​
​

​ ​

Where:

RT = Resistance at temperature T
​

R0 = Resistance at reference temperature T0

​ ​

β = Material constant
T , T0 in Kelvin
​

👉 This shows the exponential variation of resistance with temperature.

Types of Thermistors
[Link] 9/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)

Resistance decreases as temperature increases
Most commonly used
2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)
Resistance increases as temperature increases
Used for protection circuits

Construction
Made from metal oxide semiconductors (like manganese, nickel, cobalt)
Formed into beads, discs, or rods
Encapsulated in glass or epoxy for protection

Working
1. Thermistor is placed in the environment
2. Temperature change alters resistance significantly
3. Resistance is measured using a circuit (often a voltage divider)
4. Output is calibrated to temperature

Advantages
Very high sensitivity
Fast response time
Small size
Low cost

Disadvantages
Non-linear characteristics
Limited temperature range (typically −50°C to 150°C)
Less stable than RTDs
Self-heating errors possible

Applications
Temperature sensing in electronic devices
Battery temperature monitoring
[Link] 10/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Medical devices (like thermometers)

Overcurrent protection (PTC thermistors)

Thermistor vs RTD (Quick View)

Thermistor → High sensitivity, low cost, non-linear
RTD → High accuracy, stable, linear

If you want, I can provide a graph of resistance vs temperature or a numerical problem

for exams.

Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs)

Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)

Definition:
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also called a photoresistor, is a passive resistive
sensor whose resistance changes according to the intensity of light falling on it.

Principle of Operation
LDRs work on the principle of photoconductivity:
In darkness → very high resistance (mega ohms)
In light → resistance decreases significantly

👉 When light photons strike the semiconductor material, they release charge carriers,
increasing conductivity and reducing resistance.

Relationship
The resistance varies inversely with light intensity (non-linear):

1
R∝
Light Intensity
​

[Link] 11/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Construction
Made of semiconductor materials like:
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS)
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe)
Formed in a zig-zag pattern on an insulating base
Covered with a transparent coating to allow light entry

Working
1. LDR is placed in a circuit (usually a voltage divider)
2. When light falls on it:
Resistance decreases
Current increases
3. This change is converted into a measurable voltage signal

Characteristics
High resistance in dark: ≈ 1 MΩ or more
Low resistance in bright light: ≈ 100 Ω
Slow response compared to photodiodes

Advantages
Simple and low cost
Easy to use
Good sensitivity to light
Wide area light detection

Disadvantages
Slow response time
Less accurate than photodiodes/phototransistors
Affected by temperature
Non-linear response

Applications

[Link] 12/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Automatic street lighting systems

Light meters and camera exposure control
Burglar alarm systems
Day/night sensing devices
Solar garden lights

If you want, I can give a comparison between LDR, photodiode, and phototransistor or a
circuit diagram explanation.

Resistive Hygrometers

Resistive Hygrometers
Definition:
A resistive hygrometer is a passive resistive sensor used to measure humidity (moisture
content in air) by detecting the change in electrical resistance of a hygroscopic material
as it absorbs or releases water vapor.

Principle of Operation
These sensors work on the principle that:
Hygroscopic materials absorb moisture from air
Absorption of water changes ionic conductivity
This causes a change in electrical resistance

👉 Generally:
High humidity → Low resistance
Low humidity → High resistance

Construction
A typical resistive hygrometer consists of:
Substrate: Insulating base (ceramic or plastic)
Electrodes: Interdigitated metal electrodes
Sensing layer: Hygroscopic material such as:
Lithium chloride

[Link] 13/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Polymer films
Metal oxides

Working
1. Sensor is exposed to air
2. Moisture is absorbed by the sensing material
3. Ionic conduction increases with humidity
4. Resistance decreases accordingly
5. This change is measured and calibrated as relative humidity (RH%)

Characteristics
Resistance range: varies widely (kΩ to MΩ)
Non-linear response
Moderate response time
Sensitive to contamination

Advantages
Simple and low cost
Small size
Suitable for continuous monitoring
Easy to interface with electronic circuits

Disadvantages
Non-linear characteristics
Affected by temperature
Requires calibration
Limited long-term stability

Applications
HVAC systems (heating, ventilation, air conditioning)
Weather monitoring systems
Industrial humidity control
Storage and packaging environments
[Link] 14/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Agricultural applications

Summary Insight
Resistive hygrometers are widely used where moderate accuracy and low cost are
acceptable, but for high precision, capacitive hygrometers are often preferred.

If you want, I can provide a comparison of resistive vs capacitive hygrometers or a

diagram for exams.

Capacitive Sensors

Capacitive Sensors (Measuring Instruments)

Definition:
Capacitive sensors are passive sensors that detect changes in a physical quantity (like
displacement, pressure, or humidity) by measuring the change in capacitance between
two conductive plates.

Principle of Operation
A capacitor consists of two plates separated by a dielectric. Its capacitance is given by:

C = ε Ad ​

Where:

C = Capacitance
ε = Permittivity of dielectric
A = Area of overlap of plates
d = Distance between plates
👉 Any change in A, d, or ε changes capacitance, which is measured to sense physical
quantities.

Types of Capacitive Sensors

[Link] 15/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

1. Variable Distance Type

ChatGPT Free offer
Distance d between plates changes
Used for displacement measurement
2. Variable Area Type
Overlapping area A changes
Used for position/angle measurement
3. Variable Dielectric Type
Dielectric constant ε changes
Used for level and humidity sensing

Construction
Two conductive plates (electrodes)
Dielectric material (air, plastic, liquid, etc.)
Protective casing

Working
1. Sensor is exposed to physical change
2. Capacitance varies accordingly
3. This small change is detected using circuits (like bridge or oscillator circuits)
4. Output is converted into voltage or frequency

Advantages
High sensitivity
No mechanical contact → long life
Good for small displacement measurement
Can measure non-metallic objects

Disadvantages
Affected by temperature and humidity
Requires complex circuitry
Sensitive to stray capacitance and noise
Limited measurement range

[Link] 16/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Applications
Displacement and position measurement
Liquid level detection
Humidity sensing
Touch screens (capacitive touch)
Pressure measurement

Capacitive vs Resistive Sensors (Quick Insight)

Capacitive → High sensitivity, no contact, complex circuits
Resistive → Simple, low cost, contact-based

If you want, I can also give a comparison: Capacitive vs Inductive sensors or numerical
problems for exams.

Variable capacitor

Variable Capacitor (Capacitive Sensor)

Definition:
A variable capacitor is a type of capacitive sensor in which the capacitance is
intentionally varied by changing physical parameters like distance, overlapping area, or
dielectric medium.

Principle
The capacitance is given by:

C = ε Ad ​

👉 So, capacitance can be varied by:

Changing distance (d) between plates

Changing area (A) of overlap
Changing dielectric constant (ε)

[Link] 17/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Types of Variable Capacitors

1. Variable Distance Capacitor

Distance between plates changes
Used in displacement and pressure measurement

👉 As distance increases → capacitance decreases

2. Variable Area Capacitor

Overlapping area between plates changes
Common in rotary capacitors

👉 As overlap increases → capacitance increases

3. Variable Dielectric Capacitor

Dielectric material between plates changes
Used in liquid level and humidity sensing

👉 Higher dielectric constant → higher capacitance

Construction
Two metal plates (fixed and movable)
Dielectric medium (air, ceramic, or liquid)
Mechanical arrangement for movement (sliding/rotating)

Working
1. Mechanical input (movement, pressure, level) changes geometry
2. This alters capacitance
3. Change is measured using electronic circuits (bridge/oscillator)
4. Output is calibrated to physical quantity

Advantages
High sensitivity
No physical contact → less wear
Good resolution
[Link] 18/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Suitable for small changes

Disadvantages
Affected by environmental conditions (humidity, temperature)
Requires shielding (to avoid stray capacitance)
Complex signal processing

Applications
Tuning circuits (radio frequency circuits)
Displacement measurement
Pressure sensors
Level measurement (liquids)
Capacitive touch systems

Key Insight
A variable capacitor acts as a transducer, converting mechanical or physical changes into
electrical signals through capacitance variation.

If you want, I can provide a neat labeled diagram or derivations for each type (important
for exams).

Differential capacitor

Differential Capacitor (Capacitive Sensor)

Definition:
A differential capacitor is a type of variable capacitive sensor that uses two capacitors
arranged together so that when one capacitance increases, the other decreases. The
difference between the two capacitances is used to measure displacement or other
physical quantities.

[Link] 19/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Construction
Three plates:
One movable central plate
Two fixed outer plates
This forms two capacitors:
C1 between left plate and middle plate
​

C2 between right plate and middle plate

​

Principle of Operation
Capacitance depends on distance:

C = ε Ad ​

When the central plate is exactly in the middle:

C1 = C2 (balanced condition)
​ ​

When the plate moves:

Distance to one plate decreases → capacitance increases
Distance to other plate increases → capacitance decreases

👉 So:
C1 ↑, C2 ↓ (or vice versa)
​ ​

Output Concept
The output is based on the difference:

ΔC = C1 − C2
​ ​

👉 This difference is proportional to displacement.

Working
1. Central plate moves due to physical input (displacement/pressure)
2. Capacitances C1 and C2 change oppositely
​ ​

3. The difference is measured using a bridge circuit or differential amplifier

4. Output voltage is proportional to displacement

Advantages
[Link] 20/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

High sensitivity
Good accuracy
Reduced effect of temperature and noise (common effects cancel out)
Linear output over small range

Disadvantages
Complex circuitry
Limited measurement range
Requires precise alignment

Applications
Precision displacement measurement
Pressure sensors
Vibration measurement
Thickness measurement

Key Insight
Unlike a simple variable capacitor, a differential capacitor improves accuracy by comparing
two capacitances, making it more stable and sensitive.

If you want, I can give a diagram + derivation of output voltage (important exam
question) or compare it with LVDT.

Inductive Sensors

Inductive Sensors (Measuring Instruments)

Definition:
Inductive sensors are passive transducers that work on the principle of electromagnetic
induction, where a physical quantity (like displacement, position, or pressure) causes a
change in inductance.

[Link] 21/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Principle of Operation
Inductance depends on coil parameters:

N 2 μA
L= l ​

Where:

L = Inductance
N = Number of turns
μ = Permeability of core material
A = Cross-sectional area
l = Length of magnetic path
👉 Any change in N , μ, A, or l changes inductance.

Working
1. An AC supply is applied to a coil
2. A magnetic field is generated
3. Movement of a ferromagnetic core or object changes inductance
4. This change is converted into an electrical signal (voltage/current)

Types of Inductive Sensors

1. Self-Inductive Sensors
Only one coil
Inductance changes due to movement of core
Simple construction

2. Mutual Inductive Sensors

Two coils (primary and secondary)
Based on mutual inductance
Example: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

3. Eddy Current Sensors

Based on eddy currents induced in conductive materials
Used for non-contact sensing
[Link] 22/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Construction
Coil (wound conductor)
Magnetic core (movable or fixed)
Protective housing

Advantages
Non-contact operation (in many types)
High reliability and long life
Good accuracy
Works in harsh environments

Disadvantages
Requires AC supply
Sensitive to temperature and electromagnetic interference
Limited to conductive/ferromagnetic materials
More complex than resistive sensors

Applications
Displacement and position measurement
Proximity sensing
Metal detection
Speed measurement
Industrial automation systems

Key Insight
Inductive sensors convert mechanical motion into electrical signals by changing
inductance, making them ideal for non-contact and precise measurements.

If you want, I can explain LVDT in detail (very important topic) or give a comparison:
Inductive vs Capacitive vs Resistive sensors.

[Link] 23/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Reluctance variation sensors.

Reluctance Variation Sensors (Inductive Sensors)

Definition:
Reluctance variation sensors are a type of inductive sensor in which the output is
obtained by changing the magnetic reluctance of a magnetic circuit due to displacement
or movement.

What is Reluctance?
Reluctance is the opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the flow of magnetic flux,
similar to resistance in an electrical circuit.

It is given by:

l
R= μA
​

Where:

R = Reluctance
l = Length of magnetic path
μ = Permeability
A = Cross-sectional area

Principle of Operation
Inductance of a coil depends on reluctance:

1
L∝
R
​

👉 So:
Increase in reluctance → decrease in inductance
Decrease in reluctance → increase in inductance

Construction
Coil wound on a magnetic core
[Link] 24/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Air gap in the magnetic path

Movable ferromagnetic element (plunger or armature)

Working
1. AC supply is applied to the coil
2. Magnetic flux is established
3. Movement of the core/armature changes the air gap
4. This changes reluctance of the magnetic circuit
5. Inductance of the coil changes
6. Output voltage/current varies accordingly

Types of Reluctance Sensors

1. Variable Air Gap Type
Air gap length changes
Used for displacement measurement
2. Variable Area Type
Overlapping area changes
Affects flux path
3. Plunger Type
Movable iron core enters or leaves the coil

Advantages
Simple construction
Robust and durable
Suitable for harsh environments
Reasonable sensitivity

Disadvantages
Non-linear output
Requires AC excitation
Affected by temperature and magnetic losses
Limited accuracy compared to LVDT

[Link] 25/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Applications
Position and displacement measurement
Speed sensing (gear tooth sensors)
Proximity detection (metal objects)
Industrial automation

Key Insight
Reluctance variation sensors work by modifying the magnetic circuit, making them
reliable for non-contact measurement of mechanical movement.

If you want, I can explain LVDT (a very important inductive sensor) or give a diagram-
based answer for exams.

Eddy current sensors

Eddy Current Sensors (Inductive Sensors)

Definition:
Eddy current sensors are non-contact inductive sensors that detect displacement,
position, or presence of conductive materials by using eddy currents induced in the
target.

Principle of Operation
They work based on electromagnetic induction:
An AC current flows through a coil → produces an alternating magnetic field
When a conductive object comes near, eddy currents are induced in it
These currents create an opposing magnetic field (Lenz’s Law)
This interaction changes the impedance (inductance + resistance) of the coil

👉 The change in impedance is measured to determine displacement or proximity.

Key Concept

[Link] 26/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Closer object → stronger eddy currents → greater opposition → larger change in coil
properties
Farther object → weaker effect

Construction
Coil (sensor probe)
High-frequency AC source
Detection circuit (oscillator/demodulator)
Output processing unit

Working
1. AC signal excites the coil
2. Magnetic field is generated
3. Conductive target enters the field
4. Eddy currents are induced in the target
5. These currents oppose the original field
6. Coil impedance changes
7. Output signal is calibrated to displacement or position

Characteristics
Works only with conductive materials
Very high sensitivity for small displacements
Fast response time

Advantages
Non-contact → no wear and tear
High accuracy and resolution
Works in harsh environments (dust, oil)
Fast dynamic response

Disadvantages
Limited to conductive targets
Affected by temperature and material properties
[Link] 27/28
4/27/26, 9:05 PM Passive and Resistive Sensors

Short sensing range

Requires complex electronics

Applications
Displacement and vibration measurement
Thickness measurement of metal sheets
Crack detection in materials (NDT)
Shaft speed measurement
Proximity sensing in automation

Key Insight
Eddy current sensors are ideal for precision, non-contact measurement of metallic
objects, especially where high speed and reliability are required.

If you want, I can give a comparison: Eddy current vs LVDT vs capacitive sensors or a
diagram explanation for exams.

[Link] 28/28