MT 232 : VECTOR ANALYSIS

University of Zimbabwe

Gerald Nhawu
November 30, 2021

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What We Here For

• The word “vector” comes from the Latin word vectus (or vehere
–meaning to carry).
• Vector calculus was developed from quaternion analysis by J.
Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside near the end of the 19th
century.

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Vectors and Scalars

• A Vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction,

such as displacement, velocity, force and acceleration.
• A Scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, such
as mass, length, time, temperature and any real number.
.
Vector
.
Analytically a vector is represented by a letter with an arrow over it,
−
→ −
→
. A and its magnitude is denoted by | A |.
as

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Unit Vector

• A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude.

A
• If A is a vector with magnitude |A| ̸= 0, then is a unit vector
|A|
having the same direction as A.

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The Rectangular Unit Vectors

• Important unit vectors are those having the directions of the

positive x, y and z axes of a three dimensional rectangular
system.
• Denoted respectively by i, j and k.

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Components of a Vector
• A1 , A2 and A3 are components of A in the x, y and z directions
respectively.
• So A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k.
• The magnitude of A is
√
|A| = A21 + A22 + A23 .

• In particular, the position vector or radius vector r from O to

the point (x, y , z) is written

r = xi + y j + zk

and has magnitude

√
|r| = x 2 + y 2 + z 2.

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Scalar Fields and Vector Fields
• If to each point (x, y , z) of a region R in space there corresponds
a number or scalar ϕ(x, y , z), the ϕ is called a scalar function of
position and we say that a scalar field ϕ has been defined in R.
• For example, the temperature at any point within the earth’s
surface at a certain time define a scalar field.
• ϕ(x, y , z) = x 3 y − z 2 defines a scalar field.
• If to each point (x, y , z) of a region R in space there corresponds
a vector V(x, y , z), then V is called a vector function of
position and we say that a vector field V has been defined in R.
• If the velocity at any point (x, y , z) within a moving fluid is
known at a certain time, then a vector field is defined.
• V(x, y , z) = xy 2 i − 2yz 3 j + x 2 zk defines a vector field.

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The Dot and Cross Product

• The Dot or Scalar Product of two vectors A and B, denoted by

A · B is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and
the cosine of the angle θ between them. In symbols,

A · B = AB cos θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

• Note that A · B is a scalar not a vector.

• If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, then

A · B = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3 .

• If A · B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are

perpendicular.

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The Dot and Cross Product (contd)
• The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector A × B
(read A cross B).
• A × B = AB sin θu, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, where u is a unit vector
indicating the direction of A × B.
• If A = B, or if A is parallel to B, then sin θ = 0 and we define
A × B = 0.
• If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, then

i j k
A × B = A1 A2 A3 .
B1 B2 B3

• If A × B = 0, and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B

are parallel.

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Examples

.
Example
.
Find the angle between A = 2i + 2j − k and B = 6i − 3j + 2k.
Solution:
√
• A · B√= AB cos θ and A = 22 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3,
B = 62 + (−3)2 + 22 = 7.
• A · B = (2)(6) + (2)(−3) + (−1)(2) = 12 − 6 − 2 = 4.
A·B 4 4
• Then cos θ = = = .
AB (3)(7) 21
• θ = 79o approximately.
.

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Examples

.
Example
.
.If A = 2i − 3j − k and B = i + 4j − 2k, find (i) A × B (ii) B × A.

i j k
−3 −1 2 −1 2 −3
• (i) A × B = 2 −3 −1 = i −j +k
4 −2 1 −2 1 4
1 4 −2
= 10i + 3j + 11k.
• (ii) Show that the answer is −10i − 3j − 11k.

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Examples
.
Example
.
If A = 4i − j + 3k and B = −2i + j − 2k, find a unit vector
perpendicular
. to both A and B.

• A × B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B.

i j k
• A×B= 4 −1 3 = −i + 2j + 2k.
−2 1 −2
A×B
• Aunit vector parallel to A × B is .
|A × B|
−i + 2j + 2k
• .
3

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Vector Differentiation

• Let R(u) be a vector depending on a single scalar variable u.

• The ordinary derivative of the vector R(u) with respect to the
scalar u is given by

dR R(u + h) − R(u)
= lim
du h→0 h
if the limit exists.

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Vector Differentiation (Contd)

• If in particular R(u) is the position vector r(u) joining the origin

of a coordinate system and any point (x, y , z), then

r(u) = x(u)i + y (u)j + z(u)k.

dr dx dy dz
• And = i+ j+ k.
du du du du
dr
• If u is the time t, represents the velocity v.
dt
dv d 2r
• Similarly, = 2 represents its acceleration a along the
dt dt
curve.

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Examples

.
Example
.
dR d 2R dR
Given R = sin ti + cos tj + tk, find (a) (b) (c) .
. dt dt 2 dt

dR d d d
• (a) = (sin t)i + (cos t)j + (t)k = cos ti − sin tj + k.
dt dt ( ) dt dt
d 2R d dR d d d
• (b) = = (cos t)i − (sin t)j + (1)k =
dt 2 dt dt dt dt dt
− sin ti − cos tj.
dR √ √
• (c) = (cos t)2 + (− sin t)2 + 12 = 2.
dt

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Gradient, Divergence and Curl

• The vector differential operator del, written ∇, is defined by

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
• Useful in defining three quantities which arise in practical
applications and are known as the gradient, the divergence and
the curl.
• The operator ∇ is aslo known as nabla.

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The Gradient

• Let ϕ(x, y , z) be defined and differentiable at teach point

(x, y , z) in a certain region of space.
• The gradient of ϕ, written ∇ϕ or gradϕ, is defined by
( )
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k ϕ= i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

• ∇ϕ defines a vector field.

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The Divergence

• Let V(x, y , z) = V1 i + V2 j + V3 k be defined and differentiable at

each point (x, y , z) in a certain region of space.
• The divergence of V, written ∇ · V or divV, is defined by
( )
∂ ∂ ∂
∇·V = i+ j+ k · (V1 i + V2 j + V3 k)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
= + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z
• If ∇ · V = 0, then V is said to be solenoidal.

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The Curl

• If V(x, y , z) is a differentiable vector field then the curl or

rotation of V, written ∇ × V, curlV or rotV, is defined by
( )
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×V = i+ j+ k × (V1 i + V2 j + V3 k)
∂x ∂y ∂z
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= .
∂x ∂y ∂z
V1 V2 V3

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Conservative Vector Field

• In general, if ∇ × V = 0, then we can find ϕ so that V = ∇ϕ.

• A vector field V which can be derived from a scalar field ϕ so
that V = ∇ϕ is called a conservative vector field and ϕ is
called the scalar potential.
• Note that conversely, if V = ∇ϕ, then ∇ × V = 0.
• A conservative vector field is also called irrotational.
• A field which is not irrotational is sometimes called a vortex
field.

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.
Example
.
Compute
. grad f if f = sin x + e xy + z.

∂f ∂f ∂f
• grad f = i+ j+ k = (cos x + ye xy )i + xe xy j + k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
.
Example
.
Find
. div F, if F = xe y i + e xy j + sin yzk.

∂ ∂ xy ∂
• div F = (xe y ) + (e ) + (sin yz) = e y + xe xy + y cos yz.
∂x ∂y ∂z

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.
Example
.
2 2 2 2 3
.Find curl F, if F = xyzi + x y z j + y z k.

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
• curl F = =
∂x ∂y ∂z
xyz x 2 y 2 z 2 y 2 z 3
(2yz − 2x 2 y 2 z)i + (xy )j + (2xy 2 z 2 − xz)k.
3

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.
Example
.
Let F be the vector field 2xy i + (x 2 + 2yz)j + (y 2 + 2z)k. Find a
.potential for F.

• Show that F is conservative.

• We want to find ϕ such that ∇ϕ = F.
• We have
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = i+ j+ k = 2xy i + (x 2 + 2yz)j + (y 2 + 2z)k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
• So the problem is to find ϕ such that
∂ϕ
= 2xy
∂x
∂ϕ
= x 2 + 2yz
∂y
∂ϕ
= y 2 + 2z.
∂z

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 ∂ϕ
• We have = 2xy .
∂x
• Therefore ϕ ∫
is given by the indefinite integral
ϕ(x, y , z) = 2xy dx.

• Solving this yields ϕ(x, y , z) = 2xy dx = x 2 y + c(y , z).

∂ϕ
• We know that = x 2 + 2yz.
∂y
• Taking partial derivative of both sides with respect to y gives us
∂ϕ ∂c
= x2 + .
∂y ∂y
∂c
• Taken together, we have x 2 + 2yz = x 2 + and therefore
∂y
∂c
= 2yz.
∂y

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 • nItegrating this result gives us that
∫
c(y , z) = 2yz dy = y 2 z + f (z).

• Substituting this expression for c(y , z) gives us

ϕ(x, y , z) = x 2 y + y 2 z + f (z).
∂ϕ
• We have on the otherhand = y 2 + 2z.
∂z
∂ϕ df
• Taking partial derivatives of both sides gives us = y2 + .
∂z dz
df
• Therefore = 2z.
dz ∫
• Integrating this result gives us that f (z) = 2z dz = z 2 + g ,
where g is an arbitrary constant.

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 • Therefore
ϕ(x, y , z) = x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 + g .
• In practice it is often convinient for calculations to let g = 0.

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Vector Integration
• Line Integrals : Let r(u) = x(u)i + y (u)j + z(u)k, where r(u) is
the position vector of (x, y , z), define a curve C joining points P1
and P2 .
• We assume that C is composed of a finite number of curves for
each of whih r(u) has a continuous derivative.
• Let A(x, y , z) = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k be a vector function of position
defined and continuous along C .
• Then the integral of the tangential component of A along C
from P1 to P2 , written as
∫ P2 ∫ ∫
A · dr = A · dr = A1 dx + A2 dy + A3 dz
P1 C C

is an example of a line integral.

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Vector Integration (contd)

• Surface Integrals : Let S be a two-sided surface.

• A unit normal n to any point of the positive side of S is called a
positive or outward drawn unit normal.

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 • The integral ∫∫ ∫∫
A · dS = A · ndS
S S
is an example of a surface integral called the flux of A over S.
• ∫∫ ∫∫ ∫∫
ϕdS, ϕndS, A × dS
S S S
are other examples of surface integrals where ϕ is a scalar
function.
• Volume Integrals : Consider a closed surface in space enclosing
a volume V . Then
∫∫∫ ∫∫
AdV and ϕdV
V V

are examples of volume integrals or space integrals as they are

sometimes called.

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.
Example
. ∫
If A = (3x + 6y )i − 14yzj + 20xz k, evaluate
2 2 A · dr from (0, 0, 0)
C
to (1, 1, 1) along the following paths C :
(a) x = t, y = t 2 , z = t 3 .
(b) the straight lines from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 0) then to (1, 1, 0) and
then to (1, 1, 1).
(c) the straight line joining (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).
.

∫ ∫
A · dr = [(3x 2 + 6y )i − 14yzj + 20xz 2 k] · [dxi + dy j + dzk]
C ∫C
= (3x 2 + 6y )dx − 14yzdy + 20xz 2 dz.
C

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(a) If x = t, y = t 2 , z = t 3 , points (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) correspond
to t = 0 and t = 1 respectively. Then
∫ ∫ 1
A · dr = (3t 2 + 6t 2 )dt − 14(t 2 )d(t 2 ) + 20(t)(t 3 )2 d(t 3 )
C t=0
∫ 1
= 9t 2 dt − 28t 6 + 60t 9 dt
t=0
∫ 1
1
= (9t − 28t + 60t )dt = 3t − 4t + 6t
2 6 9 3 7 10
= 5.
t=0
0

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(b) Along the straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 0) y = 0, z = 0,
dy = 0, dz = 0 while x varies from 0 to 1.
• The integral over this part of the path is
∫ 1 ∫ 1
(3x + 6(0))dx − 14(0)(0)(0) + 20x(0) (0) =
2 2
3x 2 dx
x=0 x=0
1
3
= x = 1.
0

• Along the straight line from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0), x = 1, z = 0,

dx = 0, dz = 0, while y varies from 0 to 1.
• Then the integral over this part of the path is
∫ 1
(3(1)2 + 6y ))(0) − 14y (0)dy + 20(1)(0)2 (0) = 0.
y =0

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 • along the straight line from (1, 1, 0) to (1, 1, 1), x = 1, y = 1,
dx = 0, dy = 0 while z varies from 0 to 1.
• Then the integral over this part of the path is
∫ 1 ∫ 1
(3(1) + 6(1))0 − 14(1)z(0) + 20(1)z dz
2 2
= 20z 2 dz
z=0 z=0
1
20z 3 20
= = .
3 3
0
∫
20 23
• Adding, A · dr = 1 + 0 + = .
C 3 3

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(c) The straight line joining (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) is given in
parametric form by x = t, y = t, z = t.
• Then
∫ ∫ 1
A · dr = (3t 2 + 6t)dt − 14(t)(t)dt + 20(t)(t)2 dt
C t=0
∫1
= (3t 2 + 6t − 14t 2 + 20t 3 )dt
t=0
∫1
13
= (6t − 11t 2 + 20t 3 )dt = .
t=0 3

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The Divergence Theorem

• The Divergence Theorem of Gauss states that if V is the

volume bounded by a closed surface S and A is a vector function
of position with continuous derivatives, then
∫∫∫ ∫∫
∇ · AdV = A · ndS
V S

where n is the positive normal to S.

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Stokes’ Theorem

• Stokes’ Theorem states that if S is an open, two-sided surface

bounded by closed, no-intersecting curve C , then if A has
continuous derivatives
∫ ∫∫
A · dr = (∇ × A) · ndS
C S

where C is transversed in the positive direction.

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Green’s Theorem in the Plane

• If R is a closed region of the xy plane bounded by a simple

closed curve C and if M and N are continuous functions of x and
y having continuous derivatives in R, then
∫ ∫∫ ( )
∂N ∂M
Mdx + Ndy = − dxdy
C R ∂x ∂y

where C is traversed in the positive direction.

• Green’s Theorem in the plane is a special case of Stoke’s
Theorem.

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.
Example
. ∫
Verify Green’s Theorem in the plane for (xy + y 2 )dx + x 2 dy where
C
C 2
. is the closed curve of the region bounded by y = x and y = x .

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 • Along y = x 2 , the line integral equals
∫ 1 ∫ 1
19
((x)(x 2 ) + x 4 )dx + (x 2 )(2x)dx = (3x 3 + x 4 )dx = .
0 0 20

• Along y = x from (1, 1) to (0, 0) the line integral equals

∫ 0 ∫ 0
2 2
((x)(x) + x )dx + x dx = 3x 2 dx = −1.
1 1

19 1
• Then the required line integral is −1=− .
20 20

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 •
∫∫ ( ) ∫∫ [ ]
∂N ∂M ∂ 2 ∂
− dxdy = (x ) − 2
(xy + y ) dxdy
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
R
∫ ∫R
= (x − 2y )dxdy
R
∫ 1 ∫ x
= (x − 2y )dydx
x=0 y =x 2
∫ 1 [∫ x ]
= (x − 2y )dy dx
0 x2
∫ 1
x
= (xy − y ) 2
dx
0
x2
∫ 1
1
= (x 4 − x 3 )dx = − .
0 20

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