THE

SHELL BITUMEN
INDUSTRIAL
HANDBOOK
Practical Technical Guide for Roads, Waterproofing and Industry

PREFACE

Bitumen is a strategic material for modern infrastructure. It is present in almost every road,
many roofs, waterproofing systems, bridge decks, tunnels, and industrial plants. Although it
looks simple – a black, sticky material – its behavior is actually complex and strongly dependent
on temperature, loading time, composition, and production process.

This handbook is written as a practical reference for:

• Engineers and technicians in road construction and maintenance

• Waterproofing and roofing contractors

• Quality control and laboratory staff

• Sales and marketing teams in bitumen, asphalt, and membrane businesses

• Traders and project managers dealing with bitumen and bituminous products

The goal is to give a clear, structured and detailed overview of:

• What bitumen is and how it is produced

• How bitumen is classified and specified

• How to test and evaluate bitumen

• How bitumen behaves in pavements and in waterproofing systems

• How to store, handle and transport bitumen safely

• How to follow modern trends such as polymer modification and performance grading

You can customize this document for your company by:

• Adding your own product tables and data sheets

• Inserting photos from your plant, projects and laboratory

• Including local standards and specifications (ASTM, EN, BS, national norms)
CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF BITUMEN

1.1 What Is Bitumen?

Bitumen is a viscous, dark brown to black material, largely composed of high molecular
weight hydrocarbons. At room temperature, it is usually semi-solid or solid. When heated, it
becomes softer, flows, and can be mixed with mineral aggregates or applied as a coating.

Key features:

• Adhesive: strongly binds to mineral surfaces such as sand, gravel, crushed rock.

• Hydrophobic: repels water and forms an effective barrier against moisture.

• Thermoplastic: its stiffness and viscosity depend strongly on temperature.

• Viscoelastic: exhibits both viscous (flow) and elastic (recoverable) behavior.

1.2 Origin and Structure at Molecular Level

Bitumen is mainly obtained from petroleum refining. In simple terms:

1. Crude oil is distilled.

2. Light components (LPG, gasoline, kerosene, diesel) are removed.

3. The heavy residue is further distilled under vacuum.

4. The remaining residue, called vacuum bottom, is used to produce bitumen.

From a colloidal point of view, bitumen can be considered as:

• Asphaltenes: solid, high molecular weight fractions, acting as the “skeleton”.

• Maltenes: the oily phase surrounding asphaltenes, composed of:

o Saturates

o Aromatics
 o Resins

Resins act as a bridge between aromatics and asphaltenes, stabilizing the system.

The balance between these fractions determines:

• Hardness or softness

• Temperature susceptibility

• Aging resistance

• Adhesion to aggregates

1.3 Role of Bitumen in Infrastructure

Bitumen is irreplaceable in many applications:

1. Road construction and maintenance

o Asphalt mixtures for highways, city streets, rural roads

o Surface dressings and seals

o Cold mixes and patching materials

2. Building and waterproofing

o Roofing membranes (torch-applied, self-adhesive, hot applied)

o Basement and foundation waterproofing

o Parking decks and terraces

3. Industrial and protective uses

o Pipe and tank coatings

o Anti-vibration and sound damping layers

o Joint fillers and mastics

Because of its combination of flexibility, adhesion and waterproofing, bitumen supports the
durability of many structures.

CHAPTER 2 – CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMEN

2.1 Overview of Classification Systems

Bitumen can be classified by:

• Consistency at a certain temperature (Penetration grades)

• Viscosity (Viscosity grades, AC grades)

• Softening point and penetration (Oxidized grades)

• Performance under climate and traffic (PG grades)

 • Physical form and application method (cutbacks, emulsions, solid blocks, etc.)

Depending on the country and sector, different systems may be used in parallel.

2.2 Penetration Grade Paving Bitumen

Penetration grade bitumen is widely used for road paving. The main reference test is the
Penetration Test at 25 °C:

• A standard needle, with 100 g total load, penetrates the bitumen for 5 seconds.

• The penetration depth is measured in tenths of a millimeter (0.1 mm).

Example grades:

• 40/50 – hard, for hot regions and heavy loads

• 50/70 – medium hard

• 60/70 – widely used grade in many countries

• 80/100 – softer, suitable for cooler climates

• 100/150 – very soft, for cold climates or special mixes

Interpretation:
A bitumen with penetration 65 means the needle penetrated 6.5 mm under those conditions.

Typical properties of a 60/70 bitumen (illustrative):

• Penetration @ 25 °C: 60–70 (0.1 mm)

• Softening point: 48–56 °C

• Ductility @ 25 °C: ≥ 75 cm
 • Flash point (COC): ≥ 230 °C

• Solubility in organic solvent: ≥ 99 %

2.3 Viscosity Grades and AC System

In some regions (e.g. North America, parts of Asia), paving bitumen is classified based on
viscosity rather than penetration.

Typical AC grades:

• AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, AC-40

The number indicates approximate viscosity at 60 °C in units of 100 poise.

For example:

• AC-10: dynamic viscosity ~1000 poise at 60 °C

• AC-20: dynamic viscosity ~2000 poise at 60 °C

There is a rough correlation between penetration and AC grade (not exact):

• AC-10 ↔ around 60/70

• AC-20 ↔ around 40/50

2.4 Oxidized (Blown) Bitumen

Oxidized bitumen is produced by blowing air through hot bitumen or vacuum residue. This
promotes oxidation and polymerization reactions, resulting in:

• Higher softening point

• Lower penetration (stiffer material)

• More temperature-resistant product (less flow at high temperatures)

Grades are often written as Softening Point / Penetration, for example:

• 85/25

• 95/25

• 105/35

• 115/15

Applications:

• Roofing and waterproofing membranes

• Industrial mastics

• Expansion joint fillers

 • Protective coatings where stiffness at high temperature is needed

2.5 Cutback Bitumen

Cutback bitumen is made by blending straight-run bitumen with a volatile solvent. The solvent
temporarily reduces the viscosity, enabling:

• Application at lower temperatures

• Penetration into porous surfaces

After application, the solvent evaporates and the binder returns to a more viscous state.

Types by curing speed:

• Rapid Curing (RC) – with highly volatile solvent (similar to gasoline)

• Medium Curing (MC) – intermediate volatility

• Slow Curing (SC) – less volatile, often distillate fuels

Because solvents contribute to air pollution (VOCs) and fire risk, many road authorities now
limit cutback use and prefer emulsions.

2.6 Bitumen Emulsions

A bitumen emulsion is a two-phase system:

• Small droplets of bitumen

• Dispersed in water

• Stabilized by an emulsifying agent (surfactant)

Advantages:

• Application at near-ambient temperatures

• Lower energy consumption

• Reduced fumes and emissions

• Good for tack coats, surface dressings, and cold mixes

Classification:

1. Charge type:

o Cationic (positively charged droplets) – better adhesion to many aggregates

o Anionic (negatively charged droplets)

2. Breaking / setting rate:

o RS (Rapid Setting) – breaks quickly when in contact with aggregate

o MS (Medium Setting) – intermediate

o SS (Slow Setting) – remains stable longer, good for mixing

Example designations:

• C60B1, C65B2, etc. (system varies by standard)

2.7 Polymer-Modified Bitumen (PMB)

In PMB, polymers are added to the bitumen to improve performance. Common polymers:

• SBS – Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (block copolymer)

 • SBR – Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (latex)

• EVA – Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate

• Crumb rubber from recycled tires

Main benefits:

• Higher resistance to rutting at high temperatures

• Better flexibility and reduced cracking at low temperatures

• Improved fatigue resistance

• Better adhesion and elasticity

PMB is typically used for:

• High traffic motorways and expressways

• Bus lanes, roundabouts, steep gradients

• Airports – runways and taxiways

• Bridges and structures with high deformation

2.8 Special Binders and Bituminous Products

There are also specialty products, for example:

• Modified emulsions (with latex or polymer)

• Bitumen-rubber binders

• Fuel-resistant binders for airfield pavements and fuel stations

• Highly polymerized binders for bridge decks

These products are usually defined by proprietary specifications and performance tests.

CHAPTER 3 – PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING OF BITUMEN

3.1 Atmospheric Distillation of Crude Oil

The first major step in refining is atmospheric distillation:

• Crude oil is preheated and introduced into a distillation

column.

• At various heights, different fractions are drawn off:

o LPG

o Gasoline

o Kerosene / jet fuel

o Diesel / gas oil

 • The bottom residue, sometimes called atmospheric residue, still contains heavy
components.

Parameters:

• Column top temperature might be around 100–120 °C.

• Bottom temperature can be 340–360 °C.

• Operating near atmospheric pressure.

3.2 Vacuum Distillation

Atmospheric residue is then fed to a vacuum distillation column:

• Pressure is significantly reduced (e.g. 20–50 mbar).

• Lower boiling points under vacuum prevent thermal cracking.

• Heavy gas oils and lubricating base oils are distilled off.

• The residue is vacuum bottom, used as bitumen feedstock.

Quality of bitumen depends on:

• Crude origin (paraffinic vs naphthenic, sulfur content, etc.)

• Distillation cut points

• Blending of different residues

3.3 Straight-Run Bitumen Production

In straight-run bitumen:

• Vacuum bottom is sometimes de-asphalted or blended, but no major chemical

modification is performed.

• Target properties (penetration, softening point) are achieved through blending and
process optimization.

Important controls:

• Feedstock selection – some crudes produce excellent paving bitumen; others produce
poor-quality residues that crack or age quickly.

• Distillation conditions – to avoid overheating and undesirable cracking.

3.4 Air Blowing Process for Oxidized Bitumen

In the air blowing process:

1. The feed (vacuum residue or soft bitumen) is charged into a blowing unit.

2. It is heated to about 230–280 °C.

3. Air is injected through the mass via spargers (nozzles).

 4. The reaction is controlled until the desired softening point and penetration are reached.

Chemical effects:

• Partial oxidation of hydrocarbons

• Increase in molecular weight and polarity

• Formation of more structured asphaltene network

Operating parameters:

• Temperature profile over time

• Air flow rate

• Blowing duration

By carefully controlling these, the manufacturer produces various industrial oxidized grades.

3.5 Emulsion Manufacturing

Bitumen emulsions are produced by a high shear milling process:

• Bitumen is heated to a suitable temperature (generally 110–160 °C).

• Water phase is prepared separately (water + emulsifier + modifiers + acid or alkali for
pH).

• Both streams are fed into a colloid mill (or inline mixer).

• The mill mechanically disperses bitumen into very small droplets (1–10 µm).

Key factors:

• Type and dosage of emulsifier

• Bitumen content (often 55–70%)

• Droplet size distribution

• pH and ionic charge

• Temperature of both phases

The final properties: viscosity, storage stability, breaking rate, adhesion to aggregates, are
adjusted via formulation and process.

3.6 PMB Manufacturing

For polymer-modified bitumen:

1. Base bitumen is heated to 160–190 °C (depending on polymer type).

2. Polymer is added gradually under strong mixing.

3. High shear mixers or mills may be used to ensure fine dispersion.

4. Blending time can range from 1 to 5 hours.

5. Stabilizers/compatibilizers are added when necessary.

Important considerations:

• Compatibility between polymer and bitumen – some combinations phase-separate.

• Storage stability – PMB should remain homogeneous in storage tanks.

• Shear conditions – sufficient shear is required to develop polymer network but

excessive shear may degrade polymer.

PMB plants often include:

• Dedicated polymer storage and feeding systems

• High-shear blending equipment

• Recirculation loops and sampling points

CHAPTER 4 – TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR AND RHEOLOGY

4.1 Temperature Susceptibility

Bitumen is strongly temperature-dependent:

• As temperature increases, viscosity decreases rapidly.

• As temperature decreases, stiffness increases, and the material becomes brittle.

Typical example:

• At 60 °C: bitumen behaves like a highly viscous liquid.

• At 25 °C: semi-solid with measurable penetration.

• At −10 °C: glassy and brittle, sensitive to cracking.

For engineering purposes, we often use:

• Viscosity vs temperature curves (log-viscosity vs 1/T)

• Penetration index (PI) to describe temperature susceptibility.

4.2 Penetration Index (PI)

Penetration Index is a numerical value indicating the sensitivity of bitumen to temperature
changes. It is derived from penetration and softening point measurements.

• PI around 0: normal temperature susceptibility.

• Positive PI (+2, +4): lower temperature susceptibility (more “stable”).

• Negative PI (−1, −2): higher susceptibility, more sensitive to temperature.

Oxidized bitumen usually has a higher PI, meaning more stable at elevated temperatures.

4.3 Viscosity and Mixing/Compaction Temperatures

For hot mix asphalt, viscosity is used to determine:

• Mixing temperature – binder viscosity should be low enough to fully coat aggregates.

• Compaction temperature – viscosity must allow proper densification in the field.

As a guide (approximate):

• Mixing temperature: viscosity around 0.17 ± 0.02 Pa·s (170 ± 20 cP)

• Compaction temperature: viscosity around 0.28 ± 0.03 Pa·s (280 ± 30 cP)

Using a viscosity-temperature curve, we can read off:

• At what temperature the binder has viscosity 170 cP → recommended plant mixing
temperature.

• At what temperature the binder has viscosity 280 cP → recommended compaction

temperature.

4.4 Viscoelastic Behavior

Bitumen is viscoelastic, meaning:

• It flows like a viscous liquid under long-term loading.

• It behaves like an elastic solid under short-term loading.

This is why:

• Under a single, quick load (e.g. wheel passing once), deformation may partially recover.

• Under millions of load repetitions, permanent deformation (rutting) accumulates.

Laboratory tests like Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) measure complex modulus (G*) and
phase angle (δ) to characterize this behavior.

4.5 Aging and Oxidation

Bitumen ages due to:

• Short-term aging during production and laying (high temperatures, air exposure).

• Long-term aging during service (oxygen, UV, temperature cycles).

Effects of aging:
 • Penetration decreases (hardening).

• Softening point increases.

• Ductility decreases (more brittle).

• Viscosity increases.

Standard tests:

• RTFO (Rolling Thin Film Oven) – simulates short-term aging.

• PAV (Pressure Aging Vessel) – simulates long-term aging.

CHAPTER 5 – TEST METHODS AND SPECIFICATIONS

5.1 Conventional Tests

1. Penetration Test

o Measures hardness at 25 °C.

o Equipment: penetrometer, needle, water bath.

2. Softening Point (Ring & Ball)

o Determines temperature at which bitumen softens sufficiently to allow a steel

ball to fall a set distance.

3. Ductility Test

o Measures elongation before break at a specified temperature and pulling speed.

4. Flash Point

o Safety parameter: temperature at which vapors ignite momentarily.

5. Specific Gravity / Density

o Used for volume calculations.

6. Solubility in Solvent

o Measures bitumen purity by dissolving in trichloroethylene or toluene.

5.2 Rheological Tests

1. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)

o Measures complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) across a range of
temperatures and frequencies.

o Used for evaluating rutting and fatigue resistance in PG system.

2. Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)

o Measures low-temperature stiffness and relaxation.

o Used for low-temperature cracking predictions.

 3. Multiple Stress Creep Recovery (MSCR)

o Evaluates non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr) and percent recovery,

especially for PMB.

5.3 Specifying Paving Bitumen: Example

For a paving grade 60/70, an example specification may include:

• Penetration @ 25 °C: 60–70

• Softening point: 49–56 °C

• Flash point: ≥ 230 °C

• Specific gravity @ 25 °C: 1.01–1.06

• Solubility: ≥ 99 %

• Loss on heating @ 163 °C, 5 h: ≤ 0.2 %

• Residue penetration after heating: not less than 65 % of original

Each country or standard body has its own detailed limits and test methods.

5.4 Factory Quality Control

A typical bitumen plant quality plan includes:

• Incoming crude and feedstock checks

• In-process control (distillation parameters, blending ratios)

• Finished product testing (penetration, softening point, viscosity, etc.)

• Retained samples for each batch or shipment

• Certification (COA) to customers

CHAPTER 6 – BITUMEN IN ROAD PAVEMENTS

6.1 Asphalt Mix Types

Common hot mix asphalt types:

• Dense graded asphalt (DGA) – general purpose wearing and base courses.

• Stone mastic asphalt (SMA) – stone skeleton structure with rich mortar binder, high
rutting resistance.

• Open graded friction course (OGFC) – high voids for drainage and skid resistance.

• High modulus asphalt – using stiff binders and high aggregate content for structural
layers.

Each mix type has:

• Aggregate grading envelope

 • Binder content range

• Performance function (surface, base, binder course, etc.)

6.2 Binder Selection for Climate and Traffic

Binder grade must match:

• Climate – high and low pavement temperatures.

• Traffic level – volume and axle loads.

• Pavement structure – thickness and layer position.

Examples:

• Hot climate + heavy traffic → Harder pen grade (40/50) or high PG (PG 76-10), often PMB.

• Moderate climate + medium traffic → 60/70 or PG 64-16.

• Cold climate → Softer grades (80/100, 100/150) or PG 58-28.

6.3 Asphalt Mix Design and Bitumen Content

Using Marshall or Superpave method:

1. Select aggregate gradation within specification.

2. Choose trial bitumen contents (e.g. 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5%).

3. Compact specimens and measure:

o Stability / flow (Marshall)

o Air voids (Va)

o Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)

o Voids filled with bitumen (VFA)

4. Plot results vs bitumen content.

5. Select optimum binder content based on multiple criteria.

Typical optimum binder content for dense graded mixes: around 4.5–5.5% by weight of total
mix.

6.4 Performance Issues Related to Bitumen

Key pavement distresses influenced by binder:

• Rutting – permanent deformation in wheel paths at high temperatures.

• Fatigue cracking – “alligator” cracking due to repeated loads.

• Thermal cracking – transverse cracking at low temperature.

• Raveling – loss of aggregates due to inadequate binder or adhesion.

• Bleeding / flushing – excess binder rising to surface.

Role of binder:

• Stiffer binder → better rutting resistance but higher cracking risk.

• Softer binder → better low-temperature cracking resistance but higher rutting risk.

• PMB → better balance between rutting and cracking.

6.5 Maintenance Treatments Using Bitumen

Bitumen is used in pavement maintenance:

• Fog seals – dilute emulsion sprayed over aged asphalt to renew binder.

• Chip seals / surface dressings – binder + chip aggregate for sealing and skid
resistance.

• Slurry seals and micro surfacing – thin layer of bitumen emulsion, filler, and fine
aggregate.

• Cold mixes – emulsified asphalt mixes for patching.

CHAPTER 7 – WATERPROOFING AND ROOFING APPLICATIONS

7.1 Requirements for Waterproofing Bitumen

Waterproofing systems must:

• Be fully watertight and resist hydrostatic pressure.

• Tolerate thermal movement and structural movements.

• Resist UV radiation, ozone, atmospheric pollution.

• Remain functional for many years with minimal maintenance.

Bitumen used in these systems must be:

• Stable at high temperatures (no flow, no stickiness)

• Flexible at low temperatures (no cracking)

• Well bonded to substrate (concrete, masonry, metal)

7.2 Types of Bituminous Waterproofing Systems

1. Hot applied systems

o Layers of hot bitumen and felt.

o Traditional built-up roofing.

2. Torch-applied membranes

o Factory-made rolls with reinforcement (polyester, glass).

o Binder is often oxidized or polymer-modified bitumen.

o Thickness typically 3–5 mm.

 3. Self-adhesive membranes

o Cold-applied, with release films.

o Used where torching is not allowed (wood structures, hospitals).

4. Liquid-applied bituminous coatings

o Bituminous mastics, emulsions, or modified dispersions.

o Applied by brush, roller, or spray.

7.3 Membrane Structure

Typical membrane composition:

• Bituminous compound (oxidized or PMB)

• Reinforcement (polyester, fiberglass, or composite)

• Surfacing (slate, sand, film, foil)

Reinforcement provides mechanical strength, tear resistance, and dimensional stability.

Surfacing protects against UV and mechanical damage.

7.4 Roof Design and Detailing

Correct design is as important as material quality:

• Adequate slope for drainage (e.g. 1–2%).

• Correct positioning of drains, gutters, and outlets.

• Proper detailing around parapets, rooftop units, penetrations.

• Use of primers on porous substrates.

• Multiple layers or double-layer systems in critical areas.

CHAPTER 8 – STORAGE, TRANSPORT AND HANDLING

8.1 Storage Tanks and Heating Systems

Storage tanks are usually:

• Vertical cylindrical tanks with insulated shell and roof.

• Equipped with internal or external heating coils (steam or thermal oil).

• Designed with proper venting and overpressure protection.

Typical storage temperatures:

• Paving bitumen: 130–170 °C (depending on grade).

• Oxidized bitumen: slightly lower or higher depending on softening point.

• PMB: 160–180 °C but must be carefully controlled to prevent polymer degradation.

8.2 Overheating and Thermal Degradation

Excessive heating of bitumen can lead to:

• Increased hardness and brittleness (accelerated aging).

• Generation of smoke, fumes and unpleasant odors.

• Possible fire hazards if flash point is exceeded.

Good practice:

• Keep temperature as low as practical for pumping and application.

• Avoid long residence times at high temperature.

• Use thermostatic controls and alarms.

8.3 Loading and Transport

Bitumen is transported by:

• Road tankers (insulated, sometimes with heating).

• Rail tank cars.

• Sea-going bitumen tankers and barges.

• Drums for small shipments or remote locations.

• Bulk solid bitumen systems (in specialty packaging, depending on product).

For safe operation:

• Tanks and lines must be dry (presence of water can cause violent boiling).

• Loading/unloading zones must be equipped with safety systems.

• Personnel must use appropriate PPE (heat-resistant clothing, gloves, face shield).

8.4 Drums and Small Packages

When supplying in drums:

• Typical drum size: 180–200 kg net.

• Drums may be new or reconditioned, but must be clean, dry and strong.

• Proper stacking and securing during transport is essential.

CHAPTER 9 – HEALTH, SAFETY, ENVIRONMENT (HSE)

9.1 Main Health Risks

1. Burns from hot bitumen

o Contact with hot bitumen causes severe burns.

o Even a small splash can be serious.

 2. Fume exposure

o Fumes arise when bitumen is heated, especially above 180 °C.

o Acute effects: irritation of eyes and respiratory tract, headaches.

o Proper ventilation reduces risk.

3. Skin and eye contact

o Liquid or semi-solid bitumen can irritate skin.

o Solidified bitumen stuck to skin must be cooled and treated medically – never
peeled off aggressively.

9.2 PPE and Safety Practices

Recommended PPE:

• Safety helmet

• Eye protection and face shield

• Heat-resistant gloves

• Long sleeves and trousers

• Safety shoes or boots

• Respiratory protection when working in poorly ventilated areas

Safe working procedures:

• Never allow water to enter hot bitumen.

• Check all equipment before loading or unloading.

• Keep clear communication between operators.

9.3 Environmental Considerations

Environmental issues:

• Emission of fumes and VOCs from hot processes.

• Possible soil and water contamination in case of spills.

• Disposal of bitumen-contaminated waste (packaging, filters, sludge).

Good practice:

• Use warm mix technologies or emulsions to reduce temperature.

• Implement spill prevention and response plans.

• Follow local regulations for waste classification and disposal.

9.4 Sustainability and Recycling

Recycling approaches:
 • Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) – milled asphalt from old roads reused in new
mixes.

• Reclaimed asphalt shingles (in some countries).

• Use of rejuvenators to restore aged binder properties.

Benefits:

• Reduced consumption of virgin bitumen and aggregates.

• Lower energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

• Cost savings for road owners.

CHAPTER 10 – MODERN PERFORMANCE GRADING (PG SYSTEM)

10.1 Concept of PG Grading

The Performance Grade (PG) system is based on:

• Highest and lowest expected pavement temperatures.

• Mechanical performance of binder under those conditions.

Example:
PG 64-22:

• Suitable for average 7-day maximum pavement temperature of 64 °C.

• Suitable for minimum pavement temperature of −22 °C.

10.2 Testing for PG

For each PG grade, binder must satisfy:

• Rutting criteria at high temperature using DSR tests.

• Fatigue criteria at intermediate temperatures.

• Low-temperature cracking criteria using BBR.

The binder is tested:

• In original condition.

• After RTFO aging (short term).

• After PAV aging (long term).

10.3 Benefits of PG System

• Better correlation between binder selection and actual climate.

• Ability to use modified binders and advanced materials.

• More accurate prediction of rutting and cracking performance.

CHAPTER 11 – PRACTICAL TIPS, TROUBLESHOOTING AND FAQ

11.1 Typical Field Problems and Possible Causes

1. Rutting in wheel tracks

o Binder too soft, or excessive binder content.

o Insufficient compaction.

o High traffic loads at high temperatures.

2. Surface cracking

o Binder too hard or aged.

o Low binder content.

o Thermal contraction in cold climate.

3. Bleeding or flushing

o Excess binder at surface.

o Low air voids in mix.

o High temperatures.

4. Poor adhesion / stripping

o Aggregate not compatible with binder (chemical issues).

o Water present in mix or interface.

o Inadequate use of anti-stripping additives.

11.2 Practical Questions

• Q: Can I store PMB at the same temperature and for the same time as normal
bitumen?
A: No. PMB usually needs slightly higher temperature, but storage time at high
temperature should be shorter to avoid polymer degradation and phase separation.

• Q: Can oxidized bitumen be used as paving grade?

A: Generally no. Oxidized bitumen is too stiff and brittle for road surfacing. It is intended
mainly for industrial and roofing applications.

• Q: Why is my emulsion breaking too fast or too slow?

A: Formulation, temperature, aggregate moisture, and mixing conditions affect breaking
behavior. You may need to adjust emulsifier type, dosage, and emulsion grade.

CONCLUSION

This expanded handbook gives a detailed, but still practical and readable overview of
industrial bitumen:

• From crude oil to final binder

 • From lab tests to pavement performance

• From waterproofing membranes to pipe coatings

• From traditional penetration grading to modern PG systems

You can now:

• Add company-specific product tables (grades, specs, packaging).

• Insert photos and diagrams (refinery, plant, lab tests, road sites, membrane
installation).

• Create annexes with your standard Certificates of Analysis (COA), safety instructions,
and technical datasheets.