Hydrogen and Oxygen
I. Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the simplest and lightest element. It is a colorless, odorless, and
tasteless gas.
1. Laboratory Preparation
• Method: Action of dilute acids on active metals.
• Reactants: Granulated Zinc and dilute Sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
• Reaction: Zn + H2SO4 ---> ZnSO4 + H2
• Collection: Collected by downward displacement of water (it is insoluble in
water).
• Key Note: Granulated zinc is used because it contains copper impurities that
act as a natural catalyst.
2. Industrial Preparation: The Bosch Process
1. Step 1: Production of Water Gas by passing steam over red-hot coke
(1000Celcius)
• C + H2O -----> (CO +H2) + Heat
2. Step 2: Oxidation of $CO$ to $CO_2$ using excess steam and $Fe_2O_3$
catalyst at $450^{\circ}C$:
• (CO + H2) + H2O ------> CO2 + 2H2 +Heat (FE2O2 as Catalyst)
3. Step 3: Separation of CO2 (dissolved in water under pressure) and
CO(absorbed in ammoniacal cuprous chloride).
3. Chemical Properties
• Combustibility: Burns with a pale blue flame to form water (2H2 + O2 ---->
2H2O)
• Reducing Agent: It removes oxygen from metal oxides:
• CuO (Black) + H2 -------> Cu (Reddish brown) + H2O
• Haber’s Process: Synthesis of Ammonia N2 + 3H2 ------> 2NH3 using Iron
catalyst.
• Hydrogenation: Converting vegetable oils into solid fats (Ghee) using a
Nickel catalyst.
II. Oxygen
Oxygen is a life-supporting gas, making up about 21% of the atmosphere.
1. Laboratory Preparation
• From Hydrogen Peroxide: 2H2O2 \rightarrow{MnO_2} 2H2O + O2 uparrow
• From Potassium Chlorate: 2KClO3 \rightarrow{MnO_2} 2KCl + 3O2
uparrow
• Catalyst: MnO2 (Manganese dioxide) is used to lower the required
temperature for decomposition.
2. Oxidation Reactions
• Metals: Form Basic Oxides.
• Example: 2Mg + O2 rightarrow 2MgO(Dazzling white flame).
• Non-Metals: Form Acidic Oxides.
• Example: S + O2 rightarrow SO2$ (Blue flame). These oxides form
acids when dissolved in water SO2 + H2O rightarrow H2SO3.
III. Redox and Rusting
1. Redox Reactions
• Oxidation: Addition of Oxygen / Removal of Hydrogen.
• Reduction: Removal of Oxygen / Addition of Hydrogen.
• Example: PbO + H2 rightarrow Pb + H2O
• PbO is reduced to Pb.
• H2 is oxidized to H2O.
2. Rusting of Iron
• Condition: Requires both Oxygen and Moisture.
• Product: Hydrated Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3 .xH2O).
• Prevention: * Galvanization: Coating with Zinc.
• Tinning: Coating with Tin.
• Alloying: Making Stainless Steel (Iron + Chromium + Nickel).
Water
1. Water of Crystallisation
• Definition: The fixed amount of water molecules physically attached to the
crystals of certain salts (e.g., Copper Sulphate is CuSO4 . 5H2O).
• Efflorescence: When hydrated crystals lose their water of crystallisation to
the atmosphere (e.g., Washing Soda).
• Deliquescence: When substances absorb moisture from the atmosphere
and dissolve in it to form a solution (e.g., Ferric Chloride).
2. Hydrated vs. Anhydrous Salts
The distinction here is vital for laboratory work:
• Hydrated Salts: Salts containing water of crystallisation (e.g., Blue Copper
Sulphate crystals).
• Anhydrous Salts: The powdery substance left behind after the water of
crystallisation is removed by heating.
• Example: Heating CuSO4 .5H2O(Blue) turns it into CuSO4(White
powder).
Detailed Classification of Water
The text distinguishes between where water is found and its usability:
• Underground Water: Found in the reservoir of water above impervious rocks
(wells) or over hard rock (springs). It contains soluble impurities.
• Surface Water: Includes rainwater, rivers, lakes, and seawater.
• Saline Water: Water containing a high amount of dissolved salts (like the
oceans, which make up 97.4% of Earth's water). It is unfit for consumption or
agriculture.
3. Physical Properties of Water
• Anomalous Expansion: Unlike most liquids, water contracts on cooling until
4^C. Below 4C, it begins to expand until it reaches 0^C (freezing point).
• Density: Water reaches its maximum density of 1g/cm}^3 at 4^C
• Latent Heat:
• Fusion: $334kJ/kg (heat required to change ice to water).
• Vaporisation: 2260kJ/kg(heat required to change water to steam).
• Freezing/Boiling Points: Freezing point is 0^C and Boiling point is 100^C at
1atm. Pressure increases the boiling point (like in a pressure cooker) and
decreases the freezing point.
4. Chemical Properties & Reactions
• Nature: Pure water is neutral (no effect on litmus) and is considered a neutral
oxide.
• Stability: Water is very stable; it only decomposes into Hydrogen and
Oxygen at very high temperatures (2000^C - 3500^C) or through
electrolysis.
Reaction with Cold Water (Highly Reactive Metals)
These metals are at the top of the reactivity series and react vigorously.
• Potassium (K):
• Observation: It melts into a silvery globule and floats. The reaction is
so exothermic that the hydrogen gas evolved catches fire
immediately, burning with a characteristic lilac (purple) flame due to
potassium vapors.
• Equation:
2K + 2H2O rightarrow 2KOH + H2
Reaction with Boiling Water/Steam (Moderately Reactive)
These metals are further down the series and require more energy (heat) to react.
• Magnesium (Mg):
• With Boiling Water: It reacts slowly to form Magnesium Hydroxide:
Mg + 2H2O rightarrow Mg(OH)2 + H2
Reaction with Non-Metals:
• Red-hot Coke: Forms Water Gas (CO + H2).
• Chlorine: Forms Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Hypochlorous acid ($HOCl$).
5. Solutions and Solubility
• Types of Solutions:
• Saturated: No more solute can be dissolved at that temperature.
• Unsaturated: More solute can still be dissolved.
• Supersaturated: Contains more solute than it normally can hold at that
temperature (unstable).
• Factors Affecting Solubility:
• Temperature: Usually increases solubility for solids, but decreases it for
gases.
• Pressure: Primarily affects the solubility of gases in liquids (increases with
pressure).
• Nature of solute/solvent: "Like dissolves like" (Polar solutes dissolve in polar
solvents).
6. Uses of Water
• Domestic: Drinking, cooking, cleaning, and bathing.
• Universal Solvent: Dissolving a huge variety of substances for different purposes.
• Pharmaceutical: Used as a base for making lotions and syrups.
• Agriculture: Used for irrigation and for applying fertilizers as solutions.
• Industrial: Used in boilers (as steam) to generate electricity and in hydraulic
presses.
• Chemical Production: Used to prepare Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water gas.
Carbon And its Compounds
1. Fundamental Properties of Carbon
• Tetravalency: Carbon has 4 valence electrons and forms four covalent
bonds to achieve a stable octet.
• Catenation: The unique ability of carbon atoms to bind with each other to
form long chains (straight, branched, or closed).
• Isotopes: Knowledge of C{12}, C{13}, and the radioactive C{14} used for
dating pre-historic objects
2. Allotropes: Crystalline vs. Amorphous
The distinction between these two categories is a high-yield exam topic.
Crystalline Forms
• Diamond: Tetrahedral structure; hardest natural substance; non-conductor of
electricity.
• Graphite: Hexagonal layers held by weak Van der Waals forces; soft and
slippery; good conductor due to one free valency per atom.
• Fullerene (C{60}): Spherical "Buckyballs" consisting of 20 hexagons and 12
pentagons.
Amorphous Forms
• Coke: High-purity carbon used as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
• Sugar Charcoal: Prepared by dehydrating cane sugar with concentrated
H2SO4.
• Lamp Black: Used for making printing inks and shoe polish.
• Wood Charcoal: Notable for its adsorption property (used in gas masks)
3. Oxides of Carbon (CO_2 and CO)
Understanding the preparation and properties of these two gases is essential.
Carbon Dioxide (CO_2)
• Lab Preparation: Marble chips (CaCO3) reacting with dilute HCl.
• Equation: CaCO3 + 2HCl ----> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2.
• Limewater Test: Turns milky due to CaCO3 formation; milkiness disappears
with excess CO2 as soluble Ca(HCO3)2 forms.
• Fire Extinguishers: Used because it is heavier than air and non-
combustible.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Nature: A highly poisonous, neutral oxide that reduces the oxygen-carrying
capacity of blood by forming carboxyhemoglobin.
• Lab Preparation: Passing CO2 over red-hot charcoal.
• Equation: CO2 + C (heat) ---------> 2CO.
4. Inorganic Carbon Compounds
Focus on the synthesis and specific uses mentioned in the summary tables:
Compound Synthesis Reaction (Key) Major Use
Manufacture of
Calcium Carbide (CaC2) 2CaO + 6C ------> 2CaC2 + 2CO
acetylene gas
Abrasive/Grinding
Silicon Carbide (SiC) SiO2 + 3C ------> SiC + 2CO
material
Calcium Carbonate Antacid; Cement
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ----> CaCO3 + H2O
(CaCO3) making
Sodium Carbonate H2CO3 + 2NaOH ----> Na2CO3 + Water softener; Glass
(Na2CO3) 2H2O making
5. Introduction to Hydrocarbons
• Saturated: Only single bonds (e.g., Methane, Ethane).
• Unsaturated: Double or triple bonds (e.g., Ethene, Ethyne).