Module 1

• A moving coil microphone works on the principle of induced emf.

• The variations of sound pressure cause the motion of a coil in a magnetic field.

• Thus, an emf is induced in the moving coil.

• It is also known as a dynamic microphone.

Construction of Moving Coil Microphone

• It consists of a permanent magnet, generally POT type with a central south pole and peripheral north
pole.
• The magnet is so shaped as to give a uniform field in the air gap.
• A diaphragm made of non-magnetic material is fixed on the body by springs.
• A coil wound on the cardboard cylinder is attached to the diaphragm and is free to move in the air
gap as the diaphragm vibrates due to sound waves.
• A protective cover saves the delicate diaphragm and other parts from mechanical damage
•
Working of Moving Coil Microphone
• This is the emf equation of a Moving Coil Microphone:
• 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
• Explanation of Each Term
• e = Induced emf (volts)
• B = Magnetic flux density or magnetic field strength (tesla)
• l = Effective length of the conductor/coil present in the magnetic field (meters)
• v = Velocity of motion of the coil (m/s)

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the diaphragm vibrates. Since the moving coil is attached to
the diaphragm, the coil also moves inside the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet.
• Due to the motion of the coil in the magnetic field, an emf is induced according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to:
• Magnetic flux density (B)
• Length of conductor in the magnetic field (l)
• Velocity of motion of the coil (v)
• Hence,
• 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
• The induced emf varies according to the sound vibrations and forms the electrical output signal of the
microphone.
• From the Equation
• If B increases → induced emf increases.
• If l increases → induced emf increases.
• If v increases (louder sound) → induced emf increases.
• Thus, a moving coil microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic
induction.

• Since the emf is proportional to velocity of coil, it is designated as velocity microphone.

• The motion of coil depends on pressure of sound waves. Therefore, it is pressure microphone.

Features of Moving Coil Microphone

• Its sensitivity is about 90dB below 1V when sound pressure is 0.1pa.
• The voltage induced is about 30KV
• Its output impedance is low, around 30 to 40 ohms..
• Its frequency response is nearly flat in the 40Hz to 8KHz range
• It is an omnidirectional microphone.
• Its signal to noise ratio is about 25dB.
• Its distortion is less than 5%

Advantages
• Simple and rugged construction.
• High durability and long service life.
• Does not require an external power supply or battery.
• Easy to operate and economical.
• Can withstand high sound pressure levels without distortion.
• Performs reliably in harsh environmental conditions.
• Relatively inexpensive compared to condenser microphones.
• Provides good sound quality for speech, vocals, and musical instruments.
• Low maintenance requirements.
• Suitable for both indoor and outdoor applications.

Disadvantages
• Less sensitive than condenser microphones.
• Cannot capture very soft sounds effectively.
• Limited high-frequency response due to the moving mass of the diaphragm and coil.
• Less accurate reproduction of very high-pitched sounds.
• Produces a comparatively low output signal.
• May require additional amplification.
• Lower detail and clarity compared to condenser microphones.
• Not ideal for studio recordings requiring high precision.
• Heavier moving parts can affect transient response.

Applications
• Public Address (PA) systems.
• Broadcasting studios.
• Stage performances and live concerts.
• Vocal recording.
• Speech communication systems.
• Radio broadcasting.
• Sound reinforcement systems.
• Conference halls and seminar rooms.
• Educational institutions and classrooms.
• Television studios.

Parameter Condenser Microphone Electret Microphone

A microphone that uses a A special type of condenser

capacitor with an externally microphone that uses a
Definition
supplied charge to convert permanently charged electret
sound into electrical signals. material.

Consists of a movable Consists of a diaphragm and an

Construction diaphragm and fixed back plate electret plate with permanent
forming a capacitor. electric charge.

Requires external polarization Uses permanent polarization

Polarization
voltage. provided by electret material.

Does not require external

Requires external DC power or polarization voltage but may
Power Supply
phantom power. require a small bias voltage for
the FET.

Sound waves change the Sound waves vary the capacitance

Working capacitance between the and the permanent electret
Principle diaphragm and back plate, charge generates the output
producing an electrical signal. signal.

High sensitivity but slightly lower

Sensitivity Very high sensitivity.
than condenser microphones.

Frequency Wide and excellent frequency Good frequency response suitable

Response response. for most applications.

Produces highly accurate and Produces good sound quality with

Sound Quality
detailed sound reproduction. slightly lower fidelity.

Output Level Higher output signal. Moderate output signal.

Noise Lower noise and better signal Slightly higher noise compared to
Performance quality. condenser microphones.

Very small, compact, and

Size Generally larger and heavier.
lightweight.

Delicate and requires careful

Durability More rugged and durable.
handling.
 Parameter Condenser Microphone Electret Microphone

Cost Expensive. Economical and low cost.

Requires regular maintenance

Maintenance Requires less maintenance.
and proper power supply.

Less portable due to larger size Highly portable because of

Portability
and power requirements. compact size.

Power
Higher power consumption. Lower power consumption.
Consumption

Environmental More sensitive to Better suited for portable and

Stability environmental conditions. consumer devices.

Mobile phones, laptops, tablets,

Professional recording studios,
hearing aids, voice recorders,
broadcasting stations, music
Applications webcams, headsets, CCTV
production, podcasting, and
systems, and portable electronic
live sound recording.
devices.

1. Moving Coil (Dynamic) Microphone

Principle

• A moving coil microphone works on the principle of induced emf.

• The variations of sound pressure cause the motion of a coil in a magnetic field.

• Thus, an emf is induced in the moving coil.

It is also known as a dynamic microphone

Construction

• It consists of a permanent magnet, generally POT type with a central south pole and peripheral north
pole.

• The magnet is so shaped as to give a uniform field in the air gap.

• A diaphragm made of non-magnetic material is fixed on the body by springs.

• A coil wound on the cardboard cylinder is attached to the diaphragm and is free to move in the air gap
as the diaphragm vibrates due to sound waves.

• A protective cover saves the delicate diaphragm and other parts from mechanical damage

Working

• This is the emf equation of a Moving Coil Microphone:

• 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
• Explanation of Each Term
• e = Induced emf (volts)
• B = Magnetic flux density or magnetic field strength (tesla)
• l = Effective length of the conductor/coil present in the magnetic field (meters)
• v = Velocity of motion of the coil (m/s)

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the diaphragm vibrates. Since the moving coil is attached to
the diaphragm, the coil also moves inside the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet.
• Due to the motion of the coil in the magnetic field, an emf is induced according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to:
• Magnetic flux density (B)
• Length of conductor in the magnetic field (l)
• Velocity of motion of the coil (v)
• Hence,
• 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

• The induced emf varies according to the sound vibrations and forms the electrical output signal of the
microphone.
• From the Equation
• If B increases → induced emf increases.
• If l increases → induced emf increases.
• If v increases (louder sound) → induced emf increases.
• Thus, a moving coil microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic
induction.

• Since the emf is proportional to velocity of coil, it is designated as velocity microphone.

• The motion of coil depends on pressure of sound waves. Therefore, it is pressure microphone.

Features

• Sensitivity: About 90 dB below 1 V.

• Frequency response: 40 Hz to 8 kHz.

• Low output impedance (30–40 Ω).

• Omnidirectional.

• Distortion less than 5%.

Advantages

• Rugged construction.

• Resistant to weather conditions.

• Moderate cost.

• Reliable operation.

Disadvantages

• Heavy due to permanent magnet.

• Should be kept close to the sound source.

• Frequency response is limited.

Applications

• Public address systems.

• Broadcasting studios.

• Live stage performances.

• Speech communication systems.

Example

Shure SM58 dynamic microphone.

2. Ribbon Microphone

Principle

• A Ribbon Microphone works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, similar to the moving coil
microphone. Instead of a separate diaphragm and coil, it uses a thin aluminum ribbon suspended in a
magnetic field. When the ribbon vibrates due to sound waves, it cuts magnetic flux lines and an EMF is
induced in it. Since the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity of the ribbon, it is known as a
velocity microphone. The working depends on the pressure sound waves; hence it is a pressure
microphone.

Construction

The microphone consists of a powerful permanent magnet with extended pole pieces that create a
strong magnetic field. A thin corrugated aluminum ribbon is suspended between the pole pieces. The
ribbon acts both as the diaphragm and the coil. Since the output voltage generated by the ribbon is
very small, a step-up transformer is incorporated into the microphone body to increase the output
voltage and impedance. The ribbon is enclosed in a protective housing to prevent mechanical damage.

Working

When sound waves strike the ribbon, it vibrates back and forth in the magnetic field. Due to its
motion, the ribbon cuts magnetic flux lines and an EMF is induced. The induced voltage is
proportional to the velocity of the ribbon and hence to the sound pressure. This voltage is then
stepped up by the transformer and delivered to the output terminals. The electrical output signal is an
accurate representation of the original sound wave.

Features

• Frequency response: 20 Hz to 12 kHz.

• Very low distortion (<1%).

• Excellent transient response.

• Bidirectional characteristic.

• Good signal-to-noise ratio.

Advantages

• Excellent sound quality.

• Good frequency response.

• Natural reproduction of sound.

• Suitable for music recording.

 Disadvantages

• Very delicate.

• Expensive.

• Easily damaged by mishandling.

• Low sensitivity.

Applications

• Music recording.

• Radio broadcasting.

• Drama production.

• Studio sound recording.

Example

RCA ribbon microphone.

3. Condenser (Capacitor) Microphone

Principle

• The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between
the plates i.e

• As ‘d’ changes due to pressure of sound waves, capacitance changes.

• This change in capacitance causes a change in the frequency of an oscillatory circuit.

• Alternatively, this change in capacitance causes successive charging and discharging currents in a
resistance.

• These currents produce oscillating voltage across the resistance.

• This voltage is a measure of the pressure of the sound waves.

Construction

The condenser microphone consists of a very thin and lightweight diaphragm made of duralumin,
typically about 0.0025 cm thick. This diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor. A fixed metallic
back plate is placed very close to the diaphragm at a distance of approximately 0.005 cm and forms
the second capacitor plate. The two plates together constitute a variable capacitor. A DC battery of
about 150 V is connected across the capacitor through a high-value resistor to maintain a constant
charge. Since the output signal produced is very small, an amplifier is connected to the output
terminals. The entire arrangement is enclosed within a protective casing that shields the
microphone from dust, moisture, and mechanical damage.
 Working

When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it vibrates according to the sound pressure. These
vibrations cause the distance between the diaphragm and the fixed back plate to increase and
decrease continuously. As a result, the capacitance of the capacitor changes. The changing
capacitance causes charging and discharging currents to flow through the resistor connected in the
circuit. These currents create a varying voltage across the resistor. The voltage variations correspond
exactly to the pressure variations of the incoming sound waves. Since the generated voltage is
weak, it is amplified using a built-in amplifier before being supplied to recording or communication
equipment. Thus, the condenser microphone converts sound pressure variations into corresponding
electrical signals with excellent fidelity.

Features

• Frequency response: 40 Hz to 15 kHz.

• High signal-to-noise ratio (about 40 dB).

• Very low distortion.

• Very high output impedance.

• Omnidirectional.

Advantages

• Excellent frequency response.

• High sound quality.

• Low distortion.

• High signal-to-noise ratio.

Disadvantages

• Expensive.

• Delicate.

• Affected by heat and moisture.

• Requires external power supply.

Applications

• Studio recording.

• Calibration microphone.

• Sound level measurement.

• High-fidelity audio systems.

Example

Studio condenser microphones used in music production.

4. Crystal Microphone
 Principle

• Its principle is based on piezoelectric effect.

• As per this effect the application of pressure across the faces of a crystal, produces a voltage across
the faces.

• The crystals which exhibit this property are Rochelle salt, quartz, ceramic etc.

• Ceramic is the most commonly used material.

Construction

The microphone consists of a bimorph crystal element, which is made by joining two piezoelectric
crystal strips together. Ceramic materials are commonly used because of their stability and durability.
Thin metal foils are attached to the crystal surfaces to act as electrodes and collect the generated
voltage. A lightweight aluminum diaphragm is mounted on springs and connected to the crystal
element through a push rod. When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the vibrations are transmitted
efficiently to the crystal. The crystal assembly is housed in a protective enclosure that prevents
mechanical damage and environmental effects such as dust and moisture.

Working

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it vibrates according to the frequency and amplitude of the
sound signal. These vibrations are transferred through the push rod to the bimorph crystal element.
The crystal undergoes mechanical deformation due to the applied pressure. According to the
piezoelectric effect, this deformation generates an electrical voltage across the crystal surfaces. The
magnitude and frequency of the generated voltage correspond to the original sound waves. This
electrical signal is then fed to an amplifier or recording system. Since the conversion is direct, the
microphone is simple in construction and does not require any external power source for operation.

Features

• Good sensitivity.

• Frequency response: 80 Hz to 8 kHz.

• High output impedance.

• Low distortion.

• Omnidirectional.

Advantages

• Small size.

• Lightweight.

• Good sensitivity.

• Low cost.

• High signal-to-noise ratio.

Disadvantages

• Affected by moisture.

• Cannot withstand high temperatures.

• Less rugged.

• Poor low-frequency response.

Applications

• Home recording.

• Mobile communication.

• Amateur radio communication.

Example

Ceramic crystal microphone.

5. Carbon Microphone

Principle

• When carbon granules are packed in a casing, the resistance of granules depends on the applied
pressure.

• The sound waves impinge on the diaphragm which compresses the granules.

• The change in resistance causes a change in voltage in circuit.

• This voltage is proportional to pressure of sound waves.

Construction

The carbon microphone consists of a chamber filled with fine carbon granules enclosed between two
metallic plates. One metallic plate is fixed, while the other is attached to a flexible metallic diaphragm.
A movable piston transfers the pressure from the diaphragm to the carbon granules. A DC power
source is connected across the carbon chamber to allow current flow through the granules. A
transformer is connected at the output to remove the DC component and provide the AC audio signal.
The entire assembly is enclosed in a strong protective casing to ensure reliable operation.

Working

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it vibrates and applies varying pressure to the carbon
granules. During compression, the granules come closer together, decreasing their resistance and
increasing the current flow. During rarefaction, the granules separate slightly, increasing their
resistance and reducing the current flow. Thus, the current flowing through the circuit varies
continuously according to the sound pressure. These current variations create corresponding voltage
variations across the output terminals. The transformer removes the DC component and delivers the
audio signal. Therefore, the microphone converts sound pressure variations into electrical signals
through resistance changes in carbon granules.

Features

• Very high sensitivity.

• Output voltage about 100 mV.

• Frequency response: 200 Hz to 5 kHz.

• Poor signal-to-noise ratio.

• High distortion.
 Advantages

• Very rugged.

• Inexpensive.

• Compact.

• Good sensitivity.

Disadvantages

• High distortion.

• Poor sound quality.

• Limited frequency response.

• Unsuitable for high-fidelity applications.

Applications

• Telephones.

• Portable radios.

• Communication equipment.

Example

Traditional telephone transmitter.

6. Electret Microphone

Principle

• Its principle is same as that of a condenser microphone.

• However, it does not require a dc supply.

• It has an inbuilt charge on one plate.

• Sound pressure causes movement of diaphragm and a consequent change in capacitance.

• Since charge is constant, a voltage appears between the plates.

Construction

The electret microphone consists of a thin metallic diaphragm mounted on springs and placed close to
a fixed plate coated with Teflon electret material. During manufacture, the Teflon layer is permanently
charged and retains this charge for a very long time. The diaphragm and electret-coated plate
together form a capacitor. Because the output impedance is very high, a miniature Field Effect
Transistor (FET) preamplifier is usually incorporated into the microphone housing. The microphone
assembly is compact, lightweight, and enclosed in a protective casing suitable for portable electronic
devices.

Working

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it vibrates and changes the spacing between the diaphragm
and the electret-coated plate. This variation changes the capacitance between the two plates. Since
 the charge stored on the electret remains constant, the voltage across the capacitor changes
according to the relation:
𝑄
𝑉=
𝐶

When the capacitance decreases, the voltage increases, and when the capacitance increases, the
voltage decreases. These voltage variations correspond to the sound pressure variations. The weak
signal is amplified by the built-in FET amplifier and supplied to external equipment. Thus, the electret
microphone produces an electrical signal that accurately represents the original sound while requiring
very little power and no external polarization supply.

Features

• Good frequency response.

• Average sensitivity.

• High signal-to-noise ratio.

• Low distortion.

• High output impedance (≈50 MΩ).

• Omnidirectional.

Advantages

• Small size.

• Lightweight.

• Low cost.

• No external polarization supply required.

• Low distortion.

Disadvantages

• Lower sensitivity than condenser microphones.

• Limited professional audio performance.

• Charge may reduce after many years.

Applications

• Mobile phones.

• Laptops.

• Webcams.

• Headsets.

• Voice recorders.

• Hearing aids.

Example
 Smartphone built-in microphone.

Ribbon Microphone

Introduction

A Ribbon Microphone is a velocity-operated microphone that works on the principle of

electromagnetic induction. It is similar to a moving coil microphone, but instead of using a diaphragm
and coil separately, it uses a thin aluminum ribbon that acts both as the diaphragm and the conductor.
When sound waves strike the ribbon, it vibrates in the magnetic field and generates an electrical
signal. Because the induced EMF is proportional to the velocity of the ribbon, it is known as a velocity
microphone. It is widely used in broadcasting and professional music recording because of its
excellent sound reproduction quality.

Construction

The ribbon microphone consists of a strong permanent magnet with extended pole pieces that create
a uniform magnetic field. A very thin corrugated aluminum ribbon is suspended between the pole
pieces. This ribbon serves both as the diaphragm and as the coil in which EMF is induced. Since the
voltage generated in the ribbon is very small, a step-up transformer is built into the microphone case
to increase the output voltage and output impedance. The entire assembly is enclosed in a protective
housing to prevent damage to the delicate ribbon. The ribbon is free to vibrate when sound waves
strike it from either side.

Working

When sound waves strike the aluminum ribbon, pressure variations in the air cause the ribbon to
vibrate back and forth. As the ribbon moves through the magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic flux lines
and an EMF is induced in it according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of
the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity of the ribbon. Since the output voltage is very
small, it is passed through the step-up transformer, which increases the voltage to a useful level. The
resulting electrical signal is an accurate representation of the original sound wave and can be
amplified and transmitted to recording or broadcasting equipment.

Features

1. The sensitivity of ribbon microphone is low, about 3μV or 110dB below 1V for a sound pressure of
0.1 pa.

2. Because of low mass of ribbon, the frequency response is very good and is almost flat from about
20Hz to about 12000Hz

3. Its output impedance is very low, generally less than 0.5 ohm. The step-up transformer helps in
increasing the output impedance by about 900 times.
4. Sound pressure can be applied to the ribbon from front as well as back. Therefore, it is a bidirectional
microphone.

5. Its distortion is less than 1%.

6. Its Signal to Noise Ratio is good.

Advantages

• Excellent frequency response.

• Good transient response.

• Bidirectional characteristics.

Disadvantages

• Delicate construction.

• Expensive.

• Easily damaged by mishandling.

• Low sensitivity.

Applications

• Music recording.

• Broadcasting studios.

• Drama productions and stage performances.

Crystal Microphone

Introduction

A Crystal Microphone is a pressure-operated microphone that works on the principle of the

piezoelectric effect. According to this effect, certain crystalline materials generate an electrical voltage
when mechanical pressure is applied to them. Common piezoelectric materials include Rochelle salt,
quartz, and ceramic materials, with ceramic being the most widely used. The crystal microphone
converts sound pressure directly into electrical energy and is widely used in communication and
recording applications because of its good sensitivity and simple construction.

Construction
 The main component of a crystal microphone is a bimorph crystal element, which consists of two
piezoelectric crystal layers bonded together. Metal foil electrodes are attached to the crystal surfaces
to collect the generated voltage. A lightweight aluminum diaphragm is mounted using springs and
connected to the crystal element through a push rod. When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the
vibrations are transferred to the crystal element. The microphone assembly is enclosed in a protective
casing that protects the crystal from mechanical damage and environmental effects.

Working

When sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, it vibrates according to the pressure variations of the
sound. These vibrations are transmitted through the push rod to the bimorph crystal element. Due to
the piezoelectric effect, mechanical deformation of the crystal generates a voltage across its surfaces.
The magnitude of this voltage is directly proportional to the sound pressure applied to the diaphragm.
This voltage is then supplied to an amplifier or recording system. Thus, the crystal microphone directly
converts sound energy into electrical energy without requiring an external power source.

Features

1. Its sensitivity is good

2. Almost flat frequency response between 80Hz to 8000Hz

3. The noise generated with in this microphone is low. Hence it has high signal to noise ratio.

4. Its output impedance is very high, about 1MW

5. Its distortion is low

6. It is omni directional

Advantages

• Good sensitivity.

• High signal-to-noise ratio.

• Low distortion.

• Small size and lightweight.

• Low cost.

• Omnidirectional response.

Disadvantages

• Less rugged than moving coil microphones.

• Affected by moisture.

• Cannot withstand high temperatures.

• Low-frequency sounds are attenuated.

Applications

• Home recording systems.

• Mobile communication systems.

• Amateur communication equipment.

Introduction

A Moving Coil (Cone Type) Loudspeaker is the most widely used loudspeaker in audio systems. It
converts electrical audio-frequency signals into sound waves of the same frequency. Its operation is
based on the interaction between the magnetic field of a permanent magnet and the magnetic field
produced by current flowing through a voice coil. It is also known as a Direct Radiating Loudspeaker
because sound is radiated directly into the surrounding air.

Principle

• Its principle is the same as that of a motor.

• It is also known as direct radiating loud speaker.

• A coil, known as voice coil, is placed in the magnetic field of permanent magnet.

• When electric current passes through the coil, a force acts on the coil causing the coil to
move(vibrate).

• A paper diaphragm of the shape of a cone is attached to the coil.

• Thus, the diaphragm vibrates, produces pressure variations in air and the result is the sound waves.

• The force acting on the voice coil causes vibration of the diaphragm resulting in compressions and
refractions in the air.

• Thus, electrical signals are converted into sound waves of the same frequencies.

Construction

The Moving Coil Loudspeaker consists of three main parts: a permanent magnet, a voice coil, and a
conical diaphragm.

The permanent magnet is generally of the pot type having a central south pole and a peripheral north
pole. It is usually made of special magnetic alloys such as Alnico, which provide a strong and stable
magnetic field. The magnetic field is concentrated in a narrow air gap.

A cylindrical voice coil made of insulated copper wire is suspended in this air gap and is free to move
back and forth. The coil is supported by suitable suspensions so that it remains centered in the air gap.
 A lightweight conical diaphragm made of special paper or plastic material is attached to the voice coil.
The diaphragm acts as the sound-radiating element. The terminals of the voice coil are connected to
the input audio signal source. The entire assembly is enclosed in a frame that provides mechanical
support and protection.

Working

When an audio-frequency current is applied to the voice coil, it produces a magnetic field around the
coil. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. According to
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, a force acts on the voice coil.

As the direction and magnitude of the audio signal continuously change, the force acting on the coil
also changes. Consequently, the voice coil moves to and fro in the air gap. Since the conical diaphragm
is attached to the coil, it vibrates with the same frequency as the input signal.

The vibrating diaphragm creates alternate compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding air. These
pressure variations travel through the air as sound waves. Therefore, the electrical audio signal is
converted into sound waves having the same frequency and waveform.

The cone helps in distributing the sound over a larger area so that it can be heard clearly by listeners.
Thus, the loudspeaker reproduces the original sound with good fidelity.

Features

• Efficiency is comparatively low, only about 5–10% of electrical power is converted into sound power.

• Signal-to-noise ratio is approximately 30 dB.

• Frequency response is nearly flat between 200 Hz and 5000 Hz.

• Non-linear distortion may be as high as 10%.

• It is generally omnidirectional.

• Directivity can be improved using baffles and enclosures.

• Available in different power ratings up to about 25 W.

Advantages

• Simple and compact construction.

• Low manufacturing cost.

• Satisfactory frequency response.

• Lightweight and easy to install.

• Widely available in various sizes and power ratings.

• Suitable for domestic and commercial audio systems.

• Easy maintenance and replacement.

 Disadvantages

• Poor efficiency (only 5–10%).

• Very low-frequency sounds are attenuated.

• Very high-frequency sounds are also attenuated.

• Distortion is comparatively high.

• Limited power handling capability compared to horn speakers.

• Not suitable for large auditoriums without amplification.

Applications

• Radio receivers.

• Television receivers.

• Cassette players.

• Record players.

• Home theatre systems.

• Computer speakers.

Introduction

A Horn Loudspeaker is a type of loudspeaker in which sound is not radiated directly into the
surrounding air. Instead, the sound produced by a vibrating diaphragm is first fed into a horn and then
radiated into the open space. The horn acts as an acoustic transformer, providing better matching
between the loudspeaker and the surrounding air. As a result, horn loudspeakers have higher
efficiency and can produce louder sound than cone-type loudspeakers.

Principle

The Horn Loudspeaker works on the same principle as the moving coil loudspeaker. When current
flows through the voice coil, a magnetic field is produced around it. This magnetic field interacts with
the magnetic field of the permanent magnet and creates a force on the voice coil. The force causes
 the diaphragm to vibrate and generate sound waves. Instead of being radiated directly, the sound
waves pass through a horn which amplifies and efficiently transfers the sound energy to the
surrounding air.

Construction

A horn loudspeaker consists of a permanent magnet, voice coil, and diaphragm similar to those used
in a moving coil loudspeaker. However, instead of a cone-shaped diaphragm, it uses a horn. The horn
has a small opening called the throat and a large opening called the mouth. The diameter of the horn
gradually increases from the throat to the mouth. Depending on the rate of expansion, the horn may
be conical, exponential, or hyperbolic in shape. In some designs, folded horns are used to reduce the
space occupied by the loudspeaker.

Working

When an audio-frequency current flows through the voice coil, it creates a magnetic field around the
coil. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, producing a force
on the voice coil. Due to this force, the voice coil moves to and fro. Since the diaphragm is attached to
the voice coil, it also vibrates according to the input signal.

The vibrations of the diaphragm generate sound waves at the throat of the horn. The horn gradually
expands from a small diameter at the throat to a larger diameter at the mouth. The sound pressure is
maximum at the throat and gradually decreases towards the mouth. The horn acts as an acoustic
transformer and provides impedance matching between the diaphragm and the surrounding air. This
improves the transfer of sound energy and increases the efficiency of the loudspeaker.

As the sound waves travel through the horn, they spread over a larger area and emerge from the
mouth with greater intensity. Therefore, even a small diaphragm can produce a large volume of
sound. Because of the improved impedance matching, the horn loudspeaker provides good response
at both low and high frequencies and can deliver sound over long distances.

Features

• High efficiency of about 40%.

• Signal-to-noise ratio of about 40 dB.

• Nearly flat frequency response from 25 Hz to 10 kHz.

• Distortion less than 5%.

• Good low-frequency and high-frequency response.

• Directivity varies with frequency.

• At low frequencies, it behaves almost omnidirectionally.

• At high frequencies, sound is concentrated in a narrow cone along the horn axis.

Advantages
1. High Efficiency: About 40% of the electrical power is converted into sound power, which is much
higher than cone-type loudspeakers.

2. Good Power Handling Capacity: It can handle large input power and produce high sound output.

3. Better Impedance Matching: The horn acts as an acoustic transformer, resulting in efficient transfer of
sound energy.

4. Wide Frequency Response: Provides good reproduction of both low and high-frequency sounds.

5. Long Distance Sound Projection: Sound can travel over large distances without significant loss.

6. High Sound Output: A small diaphragm can generate a very large volume of sound.

7. Suitable for Large Areas: Can effectively cover large halls, auditoriums, and outdoor spaces.

Disadvantages

1. More expensive than cone-type loudspeakers.

2. Larger in size and occupies more space.

3. Construction is more complex.

4. Installation is comparatively difficult.

Applications

• Public Address (PA) systems.

• Large auditoriums.

• Music concerts.

• Railway stations.

• Airports.

• Outdoor announcements.

• Stadiums and sports complexes.

• Industrial warning and communication systems.

Moving Coil (Cone Type)

Parameter Electrodynamic Loudspeaker
Loudspeaker

A loudspeaker that uses an A loudspeaker that uses a

electromagnet to produce the permanent magnet to produce
Definition
magnetic field required for the magnetic field required for
operation. operation.
 Moving Coil (Cone Type)
Parameter Electrodynamic Loudspeaker
Loudspeaker

Works on the interaction

Works on the interaction
between the magnetic field of a
between the magnetic field of an
Principle permanent magnet and the
electromagnet and the magnetic
magnetic field produced by the
field produced by the voice coil.
voice coil.

Magnetic Field
Electromagnet (field coil). Permanent magnet.
Source

Similar to moving coil

Consists of a permanent
loudspeaker but contains a field
Construction magnet, voice coil, and conical
coil wound on the central limb to
diaphragm.
produce magnetic flux.

Requires an external DC power Does not require any external

Power Supply
supply for energizing the power supply for the magnetic
Requirement
electromagnet. field.

Magnetic field strength is

Magnetic Field Produces a very strong magnetic
limited by the permanent
Strength field.
magnet.

Power
Comparatively lower power
Handling Can handle higher input power.
handling capacity.
Capacity

Higher due to stronger magnetic

Efficiency Lower efficiency (about 5–10%).
field.

Larger and heavier because of

Size and Smaller and comparatively
the field coil and power supply
Weight lighter.
arrangement.

Cost More expensive. Less expensive and economical.

Requires maintenance of the

Maintenance Requires less maintenance.
field coil and power supply.

Depends on proper operation of

More reliable because of
Reliability the electromagnet and power
simpler construction.
supply.

Complexity Construction is more complex. Construction is simple.

Produces higher sound output

Produces moderate sound
Sound Output because of stronger magnetic
output.
field.

High-power audio systems and

Applications applications requiring greater Radios, televisions, cassette
sound output. players, record players,
 Moving Coil (Cone Type)
Parameter Electrodynamic Loudspeaker
Loudspeaker

computer speakers, and

domestic audio systems.

Introduction

A microphone is an electroacoustic transducer that converts sound waves in air into corresponding
electrical signals. The electrical signal produced has the same frequency and follows the variations of
the original sound wave. During the conversion process, the microphone makes use of either the
pressure of the sound waves or the velocity of air particles. Microphones are widely used in
communication systems, broadcasting, recording studios, public address systems, telephones, and
consumer electronic devices.

1. Sensitivity

Sensitivity is the ability of a microphone to convert weak sound signals into electrical signals. It
indicates how effectively the microphone responds to sound pressure. A highly sensitive microphone
can detect even very faint sounds and produce a measurable output voltage. Sensitivity is usually
expressed as the output voltage produced for a standard sound pressure of 0.1 Pa at 1000 Hz. High
sensitivity reduces the need for excessive amplification and improves the quality of sound recording.

2. Frequency Response

Frequency response refers to the ability of a microphone to reproduce all audio frequencies uniformly.
The audible range of human hearing extends from 16 Hz to 20 kHz. An ideal microphone should have a
flat frequency response throughout this range so that no frequency is amplified or attenuated. Good
frequency response ensures natural reproduction of speech, music, and other sounds without altering
their original characteristics.

3. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio is the ratio of the desired output signal to the unwanted noise generated within
the microphone. Every microphone produces some internal noise due to electrical and mechanical
components. A high SNR indicates that the useful signal is much stronger than the noise, resulting in
clear and distortion-free sound reproduction. Therefore, a good microphone should have a high
signal-to-noise ratio.

4. Output Impedance
Output impedance is the opposition offered by the microphone to the flow of electrical current at its
output terminals. Proper output impedance is essential for efficient transfer of signals to amplifiers
and transmission circuits. For maximum power transfer, the microphone impedance should match the
input impedance of the connected equipment. Impedance matching minimizes signal loss and
improves overall performance.

5. Low Distortion

Distortion refers to any unwanted alteration in the original sound signal. A microphone may suffer
from non-linear distortion, frequency distortion, or phase distortion. Excessive distortion changes the
quality and clarity of the reproduced sound. Therefore, a good microphone should have very low
distortion so that the output signal remains a faithful reproduction of the original sound wave.

6. Directivity

Directivity refers to the variation in microphone sensitivity with the direction of incoming sound
waves. Depending on the application, a microphone may be omnidirectional, bidirectional, or
unidirectional. Good directivity helps in capturing the desired sound source while reducing unwanted
background noise and interference. Proper directivity is especially important in broadcasting, public
speaking, and recording applications.

7. Wide Dynamic Range

Dynamic range is the range between the minimum and maximum sound levels that a microphone can
handle without distortion. A microphone with a wide dynamic range can accurately reproduce both
very soft and very loud sounds. This characteristic is important in music recording, concerts, and
public address systems where sound levels vary significantly.

8. Mechanical Robustness

A good microphone should be mechanically strong and durable. It should withstand shocks, vibrations,
rough handling, and environmental stresses without affecting its performance. Mechanical robustness
increases the life of the microphone and makes it suitable for field applications, stage performances,
and outdoor use.

9. Immunity to External Electric and Magnetic Fields

The performance of a microphone should not be affected by nearby electrical equipment, power lines,
transformers, or magnetic fields. External electromagnetic interference can introduce hum and noise
into the output signal. Therefore, a good microphone should have adequate shielding and protection
against such interference to ensure clear sound reproduction.

10. Uniform Response to Sound Waves

A microphone should ideally provide a consistent response to sound waves arriving from different
directions and positions. The output signal should accurately represent the original sound regardless
of minor changes in the position of the sound source. Uniform response ensures reliable and faithful
sound reproduction in various operating conditions.
Introduction

A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer that converts electrical audio-frequency signals into

sound waves of the same frequency. Thus, the function of a loudspeaker is exactly opposite to that of
a microphone. The electrical signals supplied to the loudspeaker may come from amplifiers, radios,
televisions, audio systems, or other electronic devices. Loudspeakers are essential components of all
audio and communication systems because they reproduce sound that can be heard by listeners.

Moving Coil (Cone Type) Loudspeaker

Principle

The Moving Coil (Cone Type) Loudspeaker works on the same principle as an electric motor. When a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. In this
loudspeaker, a voice coil is placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. When audio current
flows through the voice coil, a force acts on it causing it to move. Since a cone-shaped diaphragm is
attached to the coil, it also vibrates and produces sound waves in the surrounding air. Thus, electrical
energy is converted into sound energy.

Construction

The Moving Coil Loudspeaker mainly consists of a permanent magnet, voice coil, conical diaphragm,
suspension system, and frame.

A pot-type permanent magnet having a central south pole and a peripheral north pole is used to
create a strong magnetic field. The magnet is generally made of Alnico alloy, which possesses high
retentivity and can retain magnetism for a very long time.

A cylindrical voice coil wound with insulated copper wire is suspended in the narrow air gap between
the magnetic poles. The coil is free to move back and forth in the air gap.

A lightweight conical diaphragm made of special paper or plastic material is attached to the voice coil.
The diaphragm acts as the sound-radiating element. Suitable suspensions are provided to support the
coil and keep it centered in the magnetic field. The entire assembly is mounted on a rigid frame which
provides mechanical support and protection.

Working

When an audio-frequency signal is applied to the voice coil, current flows through it and produces a
magnetic field around the coil. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet.

As a result of this interaction, a force acts on the voice coil according to Fleming's Left-Hand Rule. The
direction and magnitude of the force depend upon the instantaneous value of the audio signal.

Since the audio current continuously changes in magnitude and direction, the force acting on the
voice coil also changes continuously. Therefore, the voice coil moves to and fro in the air gap.
 The conical diaphragm attached to the coil also vibrates with the same frequency as the electrical
signal. These vibrations create alternate compressions and rarefactions in the surrounding air. The
pressure variations travel through the air as sound waves.

The cone helps in spreading the sound uniformly over a larger area so that it can be heard clearly by
listeners. Thus, the loudspeaker converts electrical audio signals into corresponding sound waves.

Features

1. Efficiency is comparatively low and only about 5–10% of the electrical power is converted into sound
power.

2. Signal-to-noise ratio is approximately 30 dB.

3. Frequency response is nearly flat between 200 Hz and 5000 Hz.

4. Non-linear distortion may be as high as 10%.

5. It is generally an omnidirectional loudspeaker.

6. Directivity can be improved by using suitable baffles and enclosures.

7. Available in different power ratings up to about 25 W.

8. Simple and compact construction.

9. Widely used in consumer electronic devices.

10. Provides satisfactory sound reproduction for general-purpose applications.

Advantages

1. Simple construction.

2. Small size and compact design.

3. Low manufacturing cost.

4. Easy installation and maintenance.

5. Satisfactory frequency response.

6. Widely available in different power ratings.

7. Suitable for domestic and commercial audio applications.

8. Reliable operation.

9. Lightweight compared to many high-power loudspeakers.

10. Suitable for mass production.

Disadvantages

1. Poor efficiency (5–10%).

2. Very low-frequency sounds are attenuated.

3. Very high-frequency sounds are attenuated.

4. Distortion is comparatively high.

5. Limited power handling capability.

6. Not suitable for very large auditoriums without amplification.

7. Sound output is lower than horn loudspeakers.

8. Performance decreases at frequency extremes.

Applications

1. Radio receivers.

2. Television receivers.

3. Cassette players.

4. Record players.

5. Computer speakers.

6. Multimedia systems.

7. Home theatre systems.

8. Portable audio systems.

9. Consumer electronic products.

10. Audio appliances designed for small groups of people.

Introduction

A Moving Coil Microphone, also known as a Dynamic Microphone, is a microphone that converts
sound waves into electrical signals using the principle of electromagnetic induction. It is one of the
most widely used microphones because of its rugged construction, reliability, and low cost. The
variations in sound pressure cause a coil attached to a diaphragm to move inside a magnetic field,
thereby inducing an EMF in the coil.

Principle

The Moving Coil Microphone works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According to
Faraday's law, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an electromotive force (EMF) is
induced in it. In this microphone, sound waves cause the motion of a coil placed in the magnetic field
of a permanent magnet. As the coil moves, an EMF is induced in it. Since the induced EMF is
proportional to the velocity of the coil, it is called a velocity microphone.
 Construction

The Moving Coil Microphone consists of a permanent magnet, generally of the pot type, having a
central south pole and a peripheral north pole. The magnet is shaped to produce a strong and uniform
magnetic field in the air gap.

A lightweight diaphragm made of non-magnetic material is fixed to the microphone body through
springs. A cylindrical coil wound with fine copper wire is attached to the diaphragm. This coil is
suspended in the air gap of the permanent magnet and is free to move when the diaphragm vibrates.

A protective cover is provided to protect the delicate diaphragm and coil assembly from mechanical
damage and dust. The terminals of the coil are connected to the output circuit from which the audio
signal is obtained.

Working

When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it vibrates back and forth according to the variations in
sound pressure. Since the voice coil is attached to the diaphragm, it also moves inside the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet.

As the coil cuts the magnetic flux lines, an EMF is induced in the coil due to electromagnetic induction.
The magnitude of the induced EMF is given by:

𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

Where:

• e = induced EMF (Volts)

• B = magnetic flux density (Tesla)

• l = length of conductor (m)

• v = velocity of the coil (m/s)

𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

The induced voltage varies in accordance with the sound waves and forms an electrical representation
of the original sound signal. This output signal can then be amplified and transmitted to audio
equipment. Since the output depends on the velocity of the coil, it is called a velocity microphone.
Since the motion of the coil is produced by sound pressure, it is also a pressure microphone.

Important Features of Moving Coil Microphone

1. Good Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a moving coil microphone is about 90 dB below 1 V when the sound pressure is 0.1
Pa. This sensitivity is sufficient for most public address and broadcasting applications.

2. Low Output Impedance

The output impedance is comparatively low, around 30 to 40 ohms. Low impedance reduces signal
loss and allows easy transmission of signals over long cables.

3. Flat Frequency Response

 The microphone provides a nearly flat frequency response in the range of 40 Hz to 8 kHz, ensuring
accurate reproduction of speech and music signals.

4. Omnidirectional Characteristics

It is generally an omnidirectional microphone, meaning it can receive sound waves from all directions
with nearly equal sensitivity.

5. Low Distortion

The distortion produced by the microphone is less than 5%, resulting in reasonably faithful sound
reproduction.

6. Moderate Signal-to-Noise Ratio

The signal-to-noise ratio is approximately 25 dB, which is suitable for general audio applications.

7. Rugged Construction

The microphone is mechanically strong and can withstand rough handling, vibrations, and
environmental conditions.

8. Weather Resistance

Its performance is not significantly affected by weather conditions such as humidity and temperature
variations.

9. No External Power Supply Required

Unlike condenser microphones, the moving coil microphone does not require any external DC power
source for operation.

10. Reliable Performance

The simple construction and electromagnetic operating principle make it highly reliable for long-term
use.

Advantages

1. Mechanically robust and durable.

2. Not affected significantly by weather conditions.

3. No external power supply required.

4. Simple construction.

5. Easy maintenance.

6. Moderate cost.

7. Reliable operation.

8. Suitable for outdoor use.

Disadvantages

1. Must be kept within about 25 cm of the sound source for effective operation.

2. Heavier due to the permanent magnet.

3. Frequency response is not as wide as condenser microphones.

4. Sensitivity is lower than condenser microphones.

Applications

1. Public Address (PA) systems.

2. Broadcast studios.

3. Stage performances.

4. Speech communication systems.

5. Live sound reinforcement.

6. Radio and television broadcasting.

7. Outdoor announcement systems.

Introduction

A High Fidelity (Hi-Fi) System is an audio reproduction system designed to reproduce sound as
accurately and naturally as possible, with minimum distortion and noise. The term "High Fidelity"
means faithful reproduction of the original sound signal. A Hi-Fi system aims to provide clear,
balanced, and realistic sound over the entire audible frequency range. It is commonly used in music
systems, home theatres, recording studios, and professional audio applications.

High Fidelity Loudspeaker System

A high fidelity loudspeaker system is designed to overcome the limitations of ordinary loudspeakers.
Since a single loudspeaker cannot efficiently reproduce the entire audio frequency range, a
combination of loudspeakers is used.

In the Hi-Fi loudspeaker system shown in the syllabus, a cone loudspeaker and an exponential horn
loudspeaker are combined. The cone faces away from the audience, while the enclosure and horn are
arranged such that the sound from the horn is directed toward the audience. This arrangement
improves sound reproduction and provides better frequency response over a wide range of
frequencies.

Working

The audio signal from the amplifier is supplied to the loudspeaker system. The cone loudspeaker
reproduces a wide range of frequencies, while the horn helps improve efficiency and sound
projection. The horn acts as an acoustic transformer and provides better impedance matching
between the loudspeaker and air. As a result, sound is reproduced with greater clarity, reduced
distortion, and improved frequency response. The combined action of the cone and horn produces
high-quality sound that closely resembles the original audio signal.
Ideal Characteristics of an Ideal Loudspeaker

An ideal loudspeaker should possess the following characteristics:

1. High Sensitivity

The loudspeaker should produce a high sound output even for a small input signal. High sensitivity
ensures efficient conversion of electrical energy into sound energy and reduces the power required
from the amplifier.

2. Wide Frequency Response

The loudspeaker should reproduce all audible frequencies uniformly over the range of 16 Hz to 20
kHz. A flat frequency response ensures accurate reproduction of music, speech, and other audio
signals without emphasizing or attenuating particular frequencies.

3. High Signal-to-Noise Ratio

The loudspeaker should generate minimum internal noise. A high signal-to-noise ratio ensures that
the reproduced sound is clear and free from unwanted background noise.

4. Low Distortion

The loudspeaker should introduce minimum amplitude, frequency, and phase distortion. Low
distortion ensures faithful reproduction of the original sound signal and improves overall sound
quality.

5. Good Directivity

The loudspeaker should distribute sound uniformly in the desired listening area. Proper directivity
ensures that listeners at different positions receive nearly the same sound intensity and quality.

6. Proper Input Impedance

The input impedance of the loudspeaker should match the output impedance of the amplifier. Proper
impedance matching allows maximum power transfer and improves system efficiency.

7. High Efficiency

The loudspeaker should convert a large percentage of the input electrical power into sound power.
High efficiency reduces energy loss and improves overall system performance.

8. Wide Dynamic Range

The loudspeaker should reproduce both very soft and very loud sounds without distortion. A wide
dynamic range is essential for realistic reproduction of music and speech.
9. Uniform Sound Reproduction

The loudspeaker should reproduce sound without altering the original waveform. All frequencies
should be reproduced in their correct proportions to maintain natural sound quality.

10. Mechanical Stability and Durability

The loudspeaker should be mechanically strong and capable of withstanding continuous operation,
vibrations, temperature changes, and environmental conditions without affecting performance.

11. Low Resonance Effects

The diaphragm and moving parts should not have excessive resonance at any particular frequency.
Low resonance prevents coloration of sound and ensures accurate audio reproduction.

12. Compact Size and Reliability

An ideal loudspeaker should be compact, lightweight, reliable, and easy to install while still
maintaining excellent sound quality and performance.