Components of a Photovoltaic System
Posted on 10.23.2018 | Added in Solar Energy
Photovoltaic (PV) panels are
comprised of individual cells known as solar cells. Each solar cell generates a small amount of
electricity. When you connect many solar cells together, a solar panel is created that creates a
substantial amount of electricity. PV systems vary in size, depending upon the application: it can
vary from small, rooftop-mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities of tens of
kilowatts to large utility-based stations that generate hundreds of megawatts of electrical power.
There are PV systems that are connected to the power grid (grid-direct or grid-hybrid systems),
and there are systems that allow a user to disconnect from the grid (off-grid (or stand-alone)
systems).
The process of converting light (photons) to electrons generates DC electricity in solar cells.
Direct current (DC) electricity can be used to charge batteries and run a variety of electronics,
but to supply power to a household or business, DC usually needs to be converted to AC
(alternating current) power. The electrical grid transmit power over long distances using AC
power. In our households, certain electronics may run on AC power and others use DC power.
Once AC power reaches the end user, it can be converted back into DC if needed.
Most of today’s PV systems are modular, which means that they allow the user to add or remove
power capacity to the system at any time. These systems give customers the flexibility to adjust
their power capacity as the demand changes. In photovoltaic systems, there are many other
components besides the solar cells. These components include the wiring, surge protectors,
switches, mechanical mounting components, inverters, batteries, and battery chargers. These
components are what distributes and stores electricity safely and efficiently and can account of
up to half the cost of the total cost of a photovoltaic system. Components that are present in a
typical photovoltaic system are:
• Solar panels
• Electrical connections between solar panels
• Output power lines
• Power inverter (converts DC electricity to AC electricity)
• Mechanical mounting equipment
• Charge controller
• Wiring
• Batteries for energy storage
• Electrical meter (for grid-connected systems)
• Overcurrent and surge protection devices
• Power processing equipment
• Grounding equipment
Utilities may use more advanced systems for generating substantial quantities of electricity such
as:
• Single axis or double axis tilting systems
• Automatic cooling and cleaning systems
• Fuel cell, battery or other type of power storage systems
• Transmission lines
This equipment enables engineers and technicians to build PV systems that can be integrated into
buildings or constructed at an off-site location. If the photovoltaic system is located off-site,
transmission lines would need to transport the power from the solar array to the site that requires
the power.
Types of Solar Panels
There are three types of solar panels that are widely available for use in photovoltaic systems, (1)
monocrystalline, (2) polycrystalline, and (3) amorphous thin-film. Each type of panel has its
advantages and disadvantages. The primary differences between these panel types are their cost
and efficiency.
Monocrystalline Solar Panels
Monocrystalline panels have a uniform crystal structure across the entire panel, and can be made
from a variety of materials such as amorphous silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium, cadmium
telluride, copper indium gallium selenide, and organic polymers. Monocrystalline solar panels
have the highest efficiency ratings to date and perform better than other types of panels in low-
light conditions. The efficiency also decreases more slowly over time. Monocrystalline solar
panels are produced from silicon ingots and are expensive to manufacture. These
monocrystalline panels have the highest initial cost; however, the energy savings over time may
make the cost worthwhile.
Polycrystalline Solar Panels
Polycrystalline silicon solar panels have a unique speckled blue color that varies in shade with
different areas of the panel. The silicon used in these panels is not homogenous; which means
that the crystal structure can be different in various areas of the panel. As a result, polycrystalline
solar panels are less efficient than monocrystalline solar panels. Polycrystalline solar panels are
less efficient at their operating temperature due to their larger temperature coefficient than
monocrystalline solar panels. Due to the reduced power conversion efficiency, a greater number
of panels are required to generate the specified power.
Polycrystalline silicon solar panels are less expensive to purchase than monocrystalline silicon
solar panels due to the non-homogeneity of the cells. Many customers choose polycrystalline
panels over monocrystalline panels due to the reduced cost.
Amorphous Thin-Film Solar Panels
Thin-film solar panels are less efficient than monocrystalline or polycrystalline solar panels and
have a shorter lifetime. However, their costs are much lower due to the simple manufacturing
methods in comparison with crystalline solar panels. Thin-film solar panels can also be made
flexible, whereas crystalline solar panels are much more brittle and will crack if they are bent.
Because thin film panels are less efficient, they are not recommended for use in residential
photovoltaic systems. A user would need more thin-film panels than crystalline solar panels (and
therefore, more space) to generate a specified amount of electricity. For this reason, thin-film
solar panels are used more often by utility companies than by residential customers.
Charge Controllers
Charge controllers take some of the electricity from the DC current generated by a solar array
and use it to charge a battery or a group of batteries. The charge controller regulates the voltage
and current generated by a solar array so that it can properly charge the battery or bank of
batteries. The power generated by solar panels varies with light (photon) exposure. If a charge
controller was not present in the photovoltaic system, the batteries could be overcharged and
may be damaged.
The nominal and maximum voltage and current specifications on the charge controller will
determine the number of charge controllers required to gather energy from the solar array. If a
solar array generates a maximum current of 16 A, but a charge controller only accepts a
maximum current of 10 A, the solar array can be divided into two parts. Each half of the array
can generate a maximum 8 A of current, and each half of the array can be connected to the 10 A
charge controller. The other option would be to use a charge controller with a larger current
rating. Most charge controllers have very high current ratings (at least 40 amps), and the need for
more than one charge controller only becomes an issue with very large solar arrays.
Batteries
Batteries are used to store the energy generated by a solar array. Home-based solar arrays
generate their largest power output in the middle of the day when most people are away from
their homes. If the energy is not used immediately, it can be stored in a battery array. In a grid-
hybrid system, any extra electricity generated after the batteries are charged can be sent back to
the power grid.
Batteries supply DC power for a certain amount of time. The lifetime of a battery will depend on
the current that the battery supplies and the maximum charge the battery can hold. The maximum
charge of a battery is typically listed on the battery in units of milliamp-hours (mAh). This unit
expresses the current the battery can supply and the amount of time it can supply the current.
Power inverter
There are two types of power inverters that are used in all photovoltaic systems. Grid-direct
systems use a grid-tied inverter that can interact with the utility grid. This type of inverter is
different from the inverters in off-grid or grid-hybrid systems because it does not run off of
batteries. The off-grid and grid-hybrid systems use battery-powered inverters. Both types of
inverters perform the same essential function in these systems: they convert DC power to AC
power.
In the grid-hybrid and off-grid systems, solar energy that is not used immediately is stored in a
battery system. The DC power that is stored in a battery can be converted to AC power using a
power inverter. A power inverter is a device that converts DC power into AC power. The battery
array in a photovoltaic system can be used to run a power inverter, power electronics or other
BOS components. The components can be directly powered using DC power or indirectly using
AC power. The DC-to-AC converter is required because almost all home electronics require 110
VAC power.
Safety and Grounding Equipment
Safety and grounding equipment is required for safety and fire prevention purposes. Automatic
and manual safety disconnects protect the wiring and components of a photovoltaic system from
power surges and other equipment malfunctions. They also ensure that your system can be shut
down safely for maintenance and repair. In the case of grid-connected systems, safety
disconnects also allow a photovoltaic system to be disconnected from the grid; this is important
for the safety of people working on the grid transmission and distribution systems.
Grounding equipment provides a low-resistance path from your system to the ground to protect a
photovoltaic system against current surges from lightning strikes or other equipment
malfunctions. Users will need to create a grounded connection that is common to all of the
balance-of-system equipment. This includes any exposed metal (such as the chassis of equipment
boxes) that could potentially be touched by the customer or a technician.
Conclusion
The photovoltaic system design depends on the amount of power required for the particular
application. The nominal and peak power required, along with how the storage and how the
system is connected to the grid will determine the number of panels that are required by the
system.
How to Design Solar PV System
What is solar PV system?
Solar photovoltaic system or Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which
uses PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be either
stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one or more other electricity
generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable and clean
source of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry,
agriculture, livestock, etc.
Major system components
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your
system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV system are
solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and loads (appliances).
��� PV module � converts sunlight into DC electricity.
��� Solar charge controller � regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV
panels going to
battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life.
��� Inverter � converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current
for AC
appliances or fed back into grid line.
��� Battery � stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a
demand.
��� Load � is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights,
radio, TV, computer,
refrigerator, etc.
��� Auxiliary energy sources - is diesel generator or other renewable energy sources.
Solar PV system sizing
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and energy
consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per
day which
must be delivered to the appliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the
system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
2. Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out the sizing
of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on
size of the PV module and climate of site location. We have to consider �panel generation
factor� which is different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is
3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by
3.43 to get
the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV
modules available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that
will be the
number of PV modules required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules are
installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If fewer PV
modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will
be shortened.
3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the
inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the
same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount of
Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger than total
Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should
be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter
capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter should be
same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.
4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery. Deep
cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low energy level and rapid
recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large
enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find
out the size of battery, calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days
that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the
required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage capacities.
Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and batteries and then
identify which type of solar charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar
charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the total PV input
current which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV panel configuration (series
or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the short
circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge
Controller)
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:
One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.
One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.
One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12 hours and
off 12 hours.
The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.
1. Determine power consumption demands
Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5 hours)
= 1,092 Wh/day
Total PV panels energy
= 1,092 x 1.3
needed
= 1,419.6 Wh/day.
2. Size the PV panel
2.1 Total Wp of PV panel = 1,419.6 / 3.4
capacity
needed
= 413.9 Wp
2.2 Number of PV panels
= 413.9 / 110
needed
= 3.76 modules
Actual requirement = 4 modules
So this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.
3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.
4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days
Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3
(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.
5. Solar charge controller sizing
PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.