NAYPYITAW STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

M EC H A NI CA L E N G I N E E R ING D E PA RT M E N T

M E – 4 0 1 3 EN G I N EER IN G TH ER M OD YN AMI CS I I

P R ES EN TED BY ;

D AW AY E M ON M ON PA IN G

TU TO R

M EC H A NI CA L E N G I N E E R ING D E PA RT M E N T
Chapter – 1 (Second Law of Thermodynamics)

Chapter – 2 (Entropy)

Chapter – 3 (Air and Gas Compressors)

Chapter – 4 (Internal Combustion Engine)

Chapter – 5 (Reciprocating Air Compressor )

 Chapter-1

General Introduction
Limitation of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Thermal Reservoir
Heat Engine
Refrigerator
Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind
Reversible Process
Irreversible Processes
Carnot Cycle or Carnot Engine
Working of a Carnot Engine
Thermal efficiency of a Carnot Heat Engine
Reverse of the Carnot Cycle
Carnot Theorem
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Effect of 𝑻𝑯 and 𝑻𝑳 on Carnot Efficiency
Second Law of Thermodynamics

Difference between the First Law and the Second Law

•First Law → Deals with the conservation of energy. The quantity of energy changes form but is neither created nor destroyed.

•Second Law → Deals with the quality of energy. Every energy process can only occur in a specific direction. For example – heat can
only flow spontaneously from a hot body to a cold body.

Conversion between Heat and Work

•Work can be completely converted into heat.

•However, heat cannot be completely converted into work in a cycle (some heat must always be rejected).

Key Terms

•Thermal reservoir – A very large system that can supply or absorb large amounts of heat without changing its temperature.

•Heat engine – A device that converts heat into work.

•Refrigerator and Heat pump – Devices that use work to transfer heat from a cold space to a hot space.
Two Statements of the Second Law

•Kelvin–Planck statement – It is impossible to convert all heat into work in a cycle.

•Clausius statement – It is impossible to transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body without using work.

Topics to be explained later in the chapter

•Reversible and irreversible processes

•Carnot cycle
•Absolute temperature scale
Limitation of the First Law of Thermodynamics
According to the First Law, energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change from one form to another.
However, this law does not impose any restriction on the direction in which a process can occur.

That means: even if the energy balance equation is satisfied, the First Law alone cannot tell us whether a process will actually happen in
nature. Many processes that obey the First Law are impossible in reverse, even though energy would still be conserved.
Why the Second Law is Needed

All these examples show one key fact:

Processes occur in one direction only; they do not naturally reverse.
That is why the Second Law of Thermodynamics was introduced.

The Second Law states:

•Energy has different levels (quality).

•High-grade energy (e.g., electricity, mechanical work) can be completely converted into low-grade energy (e.g., heat).
•But low-grade energy cannot be upgraded into high-grade energy by itself.
•Overall: All work can be converted into heat, but all heat cannot be converted into work.
Thermal Reservoir
What is a Thermal Reservoir?

•It is a theoretical body with infinite heat capacity.

•No matter how much heat it supplies or absorbs, its temperature does not change at all.
•Therefore, a thermal reservoir can transfer large amounts of heat energy without changing its temperature (isothermally).

Real-life examples

•Oceans, rivers, and the atmosphere – They can absorb or release large amounts of heat without a significant temperature
change.
•Two-phase fluid system (e.g., water and steam together) – As long as both phases exist, the temperature stays constant even
when heat is added or removed.
•Large industrial furnaces – They maintain a nearly constant temperature and can transfer heat isothermally.

Heat Source vs. Heat Sink

•Heat source – A reservoir that supplies heat energy to another system.

•Heat sink – A reservoir that absorbs heat energy from another system.
Example: In a heat engine, the furnace is the heat source, and the surrounding air or cooling water is the heat sink.
Heat Engine
What is a Heat Engine?

Heat cannot be directly converted into work. To perform such a conversion, a special device called a heat engine is required.

Examples: petrol engine, diesel engine, steam turbine, gas turbine. Although these devices produce work, they operate on mechanical
cycles, not on thermodynamic cycles, so they are not considered pure heat engines.
A true heat engine operates on a cycle:
Important Formulas

(1) Net Work Output

Real-World Efficiency Examples

Refrigerator

What is a Refrigerator?

A Refrigerator is a device that maintains a space at a lower temperature than its surroundings.
It continuously removes heat from inside the refrigerated space to keep it cold.
The fluid used in this device is called the refrigerant.
Vapour Compression Cycle (Most commonly used system)

This system is used in household refrigerators.

It consists of 4 main components:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] device (Capillary tube)
[Link]

How the cycle works (step by step)

[Link]-pressure vapour refrigerant enters the compressor, where it is compressed into high-pressure, high-temperature vapour.

[Link] vapour passes through the long coils of the condenser, where it releases latent heat to the surroundings and turns into
a liquid.

[Link] liquid refrigerant then passes through a capillary tube (a small-diameter tube). Due to the throttling effect, its pressure and
temperature drop significantly.

[Link] low-pressure, low-temperature liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils (freezer), where it absorbs heat from
inside the refrigerator and evaporates back into a vapour, thus cooling the space.

[Link] vapour refrigerant returns to the compressor, and the cycle repeats.
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The performance of a refrigerator is measured by its COP.

Important note

•COP can be greater than 1. This means the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space can be larger than the work input.

•Example: If COP = 3, then for 1 kJ of work input, 3 kJ of heat is removed from the cold space.

Heat Pump
A Heat Pump is a device that absorbs heat from a low-temperature area and supplies it to a high-temperature area.
Its purpose is to keep a controlled room (or space) warmer than the surroundings.

Example: If you take an ordinary refrigerator, place it in a window with its cooling section (evaporator) outside and its heat-releasing
section (condenser) inside the room, it acts as a heat pump.

Working Principle

The heat pump works as follows:

•Qₗ = Amount of heat absorbed from the low-temperature area
•W_in = Work input to the compressor (electrical energy)
•Q_H = Amount of heat released to the high-temperature area
According to the energy conservation law:

This means: The heat output (Q_H) equals the absorbed heat (Qₗ) plus the work input (W_in).
Formula for Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Meaning: For the same Q_H and Q_L, the COP of a heat pump is always greater than the COP of a refrigerator by exactly 1.
Summary

Heat Pump = A device that moves heat from a cold place to a hot place

•Purpose = To keep a room warm

•COP_HP = Q_H / W_in

•COP_HP is always 1 greater than COP_R

Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin-Planck Statement (for Heat Engines)

Definition
It is impossible to construct an engine which, while operating in a cycle, produces no other effect except to extract heat from a
single temperature reservoir and do an equivalent amount of work.

This means that the efficiency (η) of a heat engine cannot be 100%. Not all heat can be converted into work; some must be rejected
to a low-temperature reservoir.

Formula
Clausius Statement (for Refrigerators / Heat Pumps)

Definition
It is impossible for any device that operates in a cycle to produce no other effect than the transfer of heat energy from a lower
temperature body to a higher temperature body.

Heat cannot flow by itself from cold to hot without an external work input.

Formula (for a Refrigerator)

Equivalence of the Two Statements

Although they seem different at first, violating one statement leads to violating the other.

Summary Table
Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind

Meaning of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

•First Law of Thermodynamics: Heat and work can be converted into one another.
•Second Law of Thermodynamics: Not all heat can be completely converted into work. A portion of heat must always be rejected.

What is a Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind (PMM2)?

A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a hypothetical machine that absorbs heat from only one heat reservoir and completely
converts all of that heat into work. Such a machine would have 100% efficiency. However, this machine violates the Second Law of
Thermodynamics. Therefore, it is impossible to build in practice.

Example – A Steam Power Plant Without a Condenser

•In a normal steam power plant, the condenser rejects most of the heat as waste.
•If there is no condenser, one might think all the heat could be converted into work by the turbine. But that would be a PMM2, which is
impossible.
•The reason is that heat is a low-grade energy and cannot be completely converted into work.
Summary Table
Reversible Process
Two definitions

First definition:
A reversible process is defined as a process that, once having taken place in one direction, can be reversed without leaving any trace on
either the system or the surroundings.

•Second definition:
A reversible process is one that proceeds in such a way that at the conclusion of the process, both the system and surroundings can be
restored to their initial states without producing any change in the universe. This is possible only if the net transfer of heat and work
between the system and surroundings for the original and reverse process is zero.

Example

A cup of hot tea:

•When hot tea cools down by transferring heat to the surroundings, it cannot heat up again by recovering the lost heat from the
surroundings without any external effect.
•If it could do so, then both the system and surroundings could be restored to their original states, and that would be a reversible process.
•In reality: Reversible processes do not occur in nature. They are idealizations of actual processes. They can be approximated but never
achieved.
Importance in Engineering

•Easy to analyze: The system passes through a series of equilibrium states.

•Best performance:
• Work-producing devices (engines, turbines) → develop maximum work when operated reversibly.
• Work-consuming devices (compressors, blowers, pumps) → consume least work when operated reversibly.

The figure shows:

•Horizontal axis → Volume
•Vertical axis → Pressure
•Point A → Initial state of the system
•Point B → Final state of the system
•Curve APB → Path from A to B (forward process)

Condition for reversibility from the figure:

•The system goes from A to B along path APB.
•To be reversible, the system must be able to return from B to A along the exact same
path (BPA).
•When both system and surroundings are restored to their initial states without any change
in the universe, then the process APB is called a reversible process.
Summary Table

Irreversible Processes

All Natural Processes are Irreversible

•All processes occurring in nature are irreversible.

•This means that even if you try to reverse the process, both the system and its surroundings cannot return to
their exact initial states.
•When such a process is reversed, it always leaves some mark on either the surroundings or the system.
Causes of Irreversibility

(i) Mechanical Irreversibility

•Caused by friction.
•Example: When two bodies move relative to each other, frictional force opposes the motion, and some work is lost to overcome it.
•Friction also occurs between fluids and solid surfaces, and between layers of fluid moving at different velocities.

(ii) Thermal Irreversibility

•Associated with heat transfer due to a finite temperature difference between the system and surroundings.
•Example: Heat lost from a system during compression cannot be fully regained during expansion, causing irreversibility.

Internal Irreversibility

•All actual processes are internally irreversible.

•This means the system does not pass through a series of equilibrium states.
Requirements for a Reversible Process

For a process to be reversible, it must satisfy all of the following:

[Link] friction of any kind.
[Link] heat transfer due to a finite temperature difference between system and surroundings.
[Link] mixing of fluid layers at different temperatures.
[Link] free or unrestrained expansion.
[Link] process must proceed through a series of equilibrium states.

Summary

•Actual processes = irreversible

•Causes: friction, finite temperature difference, pressure non-uniformity
•Rapid compression → more work input
•Rapid expansion → less work output
•Reversible processes require all 5 conditions listed above to be met.
Carnot Cycle or Carnot Engine

What is the Carnot Cycle?

Proposed by French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824.

This cycle is a reversible cycle.

Theoretically, it is a heat engine that converts the maximum amount of energy into mechanical work.

Key Point of the Carnot Cycle

The efficiency of an engine depends on the difference between the highest temperature and lowest temperature reached during one cycle.

The greater the temperature difference, the higher the efficiency.

Four Processes of the Carnot Cycle

The cycle consists of the following four reversible processes:

[Link] isothermal expansion
– Expansion at constant temperature, reversible.
[Link] adiabatic (isentropic) expansion
– Expansion with no heat transfer, reversible (entropy constant).
3. Reversible isothermal compression
– Compression at constant temperature, reversible.

4. Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression

– Compression with no heat transfer, reversible (entropy constant).

Assumptions of the Carnot Engine

The working substance is a perfect gas.

Piston movement is frictionless.

The walls of the cylinder and piston are perfectly insulated.

The cylinder head is partly a very good conductor of heat and partly a perfect insulator.

Heat supply and heat rejection occur at constant temperatures.

Working of a Carnot Engine

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (Process 1-2)

•Condition: Cylinder head is a good conductor of heat. It is in contact with the

heat source (T_H).
•Process: The working medium absorbs heat slowly at constant temperature
T_H and expands from state 1 to state 2 (volume increases from V₁ to V₂).

•Heat added (Q_H) :

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (Process 2-3)

•Condition: Cylinder head is replaced with an insulator (no heat transfer).

•Process: The gas continues to expand slowly. Temperature drops from T_H to T_L. No heat is exchanged.

Reversible Isothermal Compression (Process 3-4)

•Condition: Cylinder head is again a good conductor. It is now in contact with the heat sink (T_L).
•Process: An external force pushes the piston inward, compressing the gas. The heat generated is absorbed by the heat sink, keeping
temperature constant at T_L.
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (Process 4-1)

•Condition: Cylinder head is again an insulator.

•Process: The gas is further compressed. Temperature rises from T_L back to T_H. No heat is exchanged.
Thermal efficiency of a Carnot Heat Engine

Definition of Thermal Efficiency Derivation Specific to the Carnot Engine

For any heat engine, thermal efficiency (η_th) is defined as: The Carnot engine is a reversible engine consisting of 4 processes.
From formula (6.11):
Isentropic Processes

Processes 2→3 (compression) and 4→1 (expansion) are isentropic (constant entropy):

Final Carnot Efficiency Formula

Substituting the above relation into formula (6.11), the logarithmic terms cancel out, yielding:

This is the Carnot efficiency.

Reverse of the Carnot Cycle

[Link] of the Carnot Cycle

1. The normal Carnot cycle can be operated in reverse.

2. Therefore, it is called a Reversed Carnot Cycle.

[Link]

1. This cycle can be used as a reversible heat pump or a reversible refrigerator.

[Link]

1. The cycle follows the same path and processes, only the direction is reversed.

Now, this cycle requires a work input 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 , and it transfers heat𝑄𝐿 from the low-temperature reservoir to the high-temperature
reservoir.
Carnot Theorem
(1) First Part

"No engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine operating between the same two temperature reservoirs. A Carnot (reversible)
engine is the most efficient among all engines operating between the same two reservoirs."

(2) Second Part

"All reversible heat engines operating between the same two temperature reservoirs have the same efficiency."
Proving the Second Part

•Both engines A and B are taken as reversible.

•If one reversible engine were more efficient than another reversible engine operating between the same reservoirs, then by the same logic
as above, it would also violate the Kelvin-Planck statement.
•Therefore, all reversible engines operating between the same two temperature reservoirs must have the same efficiency.

Main Formula (Carnot Efficiency)

For a Carnot (reversible) engine:

Important Notes:

•This is the maximum possible efficiency for any heat engine operating between T_H and T_L.
•No real (irreversible) engine can exceed this value.
•The Carnot engine serves as an ideal reference for comparing real engines.
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Equation (6.17)

The fundamental equation given in the text is:

Key Points
•A thermodynamic temperature scale is independent of any substance's properties (e.g., mercury expansion).
•The efficiency of a reversible engine depends only on the source and sink temperatures.
•Therefore, we can write

Step-by-Step Calculation

Multiplying the heat ratios of engines A, B, and C:

Defining the Kelvin Scale

Lord Kelvin proposed taking ϕ(T)=T, giving:

This is the Kelvin scale (absolute temperature scale).

It means: for a reversible heat engine, the ratio of heat supplied to heat rejected equals the ratio of the absolute temperatures.

Fixed Points (1954 Conference)

•Triple point of water = 273.15 K

•1 kelvin (K) = 1/273.15 of the interval from absolute zero to the triple point.
•1 K = 1°C (the magnitude is the same)
•Conversion formula:
Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

Carnot Refrigerator

Definition:

A refrigerator that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator.

General COP formula:

Carnot Heat Pump
Important Conclusions
General COP formula:
Effect of 𝑻𝑯 and 𝑻𝑳 on Carnot Efficiency

Basic Formula

(i) Effect of Changing 𝑇𝐻 (keeping 𝑇𝐿 constant)

(ii) Effect of Changing 𝑇𝐿 (keeping 𝑇𝐻 constant)

Comparison – Which is More Effective?

Equation (6.26):
Example 1 to 31 Problem 1 to 28

Viva 1 to 10