ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Comprehensive Study Notes

Topics Covered:
1. Characteristics Influencing Generation & Transmission of Electricity
2. Energy Conversion: Steam, Water, Gas Turbine, Nuclear & Solar (Thermal)
3. ABCD Parameters of Transmission Lines
4. Load Flow Studies
5. Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

Prepared for Advanced Electrical Engineering Studies

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 1 of 24

 SECTION 1: Characteristics Influencing Generation and
Transmission of Electricity

The generation and transmission of electrical energy are governed by several fundamental
characteristics. Understanding these characteristics is essential for designing efficient, reliable, and
economical power systems.

1.1 Load Characteristics

Electrical load is never constant — it varies continuously with time. Power systems must be designed to
meet these varying demands efficiently.

1.1.1 Load Curve

A load curve (or load graph) is a graphical representation of the variation of load on a power station
with respect to time. It shows how electrical demand changes over hours, days, or months.

🔑 KEY CONCEPT: Types of Load Curves

Daily Load Curve: Shows load variation over 24 hours
Weekly Load Curve: Shows variation over 7 days
Annual Load Curve: Shows variation over 12 months (used for planning)

1.1.2 Load Duration Curve

A load duration curve is derived from the load curve by rearranging all load values in descending order
of magnitude. It shows the number of hours during which each load level is equalled or exceeded.

1.1.3 Important Load Terminology

Term Definition
Connected Load Total load of all equipment connected to the
supply system
Maximum Demand Greatest load demanded by the consumer at
any time
Average Load Average of all loads over a given period
Base Load Load that is present almost all the time (24
hrs/day)
Peak Load Maximum load above the base load, usually for
short periods

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 2 of 24

1.2 Key Performance Factors

1.2.1 Demand Factor

The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand to the connected load. It is always less than or
equal to 1.
Demand Factor = Maximum Demand / Connected Load

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Demand Factor Calculation

Problem: A residential area has a connected load of 500 kW and a maximum demand of 350
kW. Find the demand factor.
Solution:
Demand Factor = Maximum Demand / Connected Load
Demand Factor = 350 / 500 = 0.70 (or 70%)
This means only 70% of the installed equipment operates at full load simultaneously.

1.2.2 Load Factor

The load factor is the ratio of the average load to the maximum demand over a given period. A high
load factor is desirable as it indicates better utilisation of the plant.
Load Factor = Average Load / Maximum Demand
Also: Load Factor = (Units Generated in Period) / (Maximum
Demand × Duration of Period)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Load Factor Calculation

Problem: A power station supplies a maximum load of 25 MW and generates 3,00,000 kWh in
24 hours. Calculate the load factor.
Solution:
Average Load = Units Generated / Hours = 3,00,000 / 24 = 12,500 kW =
12.5 MW
Load Factor = 12.5 / 25 = 0.50 (or 50%)
A 50% load factor means the plant generates half of what it could have at maximum demand
throughout the day.

1.2.3 Diversity Factor

The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of the consumers to the
maximum demand of the whole system. It is always greater than or equal to 1.
Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Maximum Demands / Maximum
Demand of the System

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Diversity Factor Calculation

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 3 of 24

 Problem: Three consumers have individual max demands of 100 kW, 150 kW, and 200 kW. The
combined max demand from the supply point is 350 kW. Find the diversity factor.
Solution:
Sum of Individual Max Demands = 100 + 150 + 200 = 450 kW
Diversity Factor = 450 / 350 = 1.286
A diversity factor > 1 means not all consumers reach their peak demands simultaneously.

1.2.4 Plant Capacity Factor & Plant Use Factor

Plant Capacity Factor: Ratio of actual energy produced to maximum possible energy the plant could
have produced.
Plant Capacity Factor = Actual Energy Produced / (Plant Capacity
× Time)
Plant Use Factor: Ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the number of hours the
plant was in use.
Plant Use Factor = Units Generated in Given Period / (Plant
Capacity × Hours Plant Was in Use)

1.3 Transmission Characteristics

1.3.1 Choice of Transmission Voltage

Higher transmission voltages reduce I²R losses and conductor cross-section, but require more
insulation and expensive switchgear. The economic choice of voltage depends on the power to be
transmitted and the transmission distance.
Economic Voltage (kV) ≈ 5.5 × sqrt(L/1.6 + P/100)
Where: L = distance in km, P = power in kW (Still's formula — used as a rough guide only)

1.3.2 Transmission Efficiency

Transmission efficiency is the ratio of power received at the receiving end to the power sent from the
sending end.
Transmission Efficiency (%) = (P_R / P_S) × 100
Where P_R = Power at receiving end (kW), P_S = Power at sending end (kW)
Percentage Line Losses = ((P_S - P_R) / P_S) × 100

1.3.3 Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation of a transmission line is the change in receiving-end voltage from no-load to full-load
conditions, expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage.
% Voltage Regulation = ((V_NL - V_FL) / V_FL) × 100

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 4 of 24

Where: V_NL = Receiving-end voltage at no-load, V_FL = Receiving-end voltage at full load

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Voltage Regulation Calculation

Problem: A transmission line has a no-load receiving voltage of 11.5 kV and a full-load receiving
voltage of 11.0 kV. Calculate the percentage voltage regulation.
Solution:
% Voltage Regulation = ((11.5 - 11.0) / 11.0) × 100
% Voltage Regulation = (0.5 / 11.0) × 100 = 4.55%

1.4 Power Factor and Its Significance

Power factor (cos φ) is the cosine of the angle between voltage and current phasors. A low power
factor increases the current for the same power, leading to higher conductor losses, larger conductor
sizes, and poor voltage regulation.
P = V × I × cosφ (Single-phase)
P = √3 × V_L × I_L × cosφ (Three-phase)

ℹ️ NOTE: Effects of Low Power Factor

• Increased kVA demand (for the same kW) → larger generators and transformers required
• Larger conductor cross-sections needed to carry higher current
• Greater copper losses (I²R) → poor efficiency
• Poor voltage regulation

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 5 of 24

 SECTION 2: Energy Conversion in Power Generation

Electric power generation involves the conversion of one form of primary energy into electrical energy.
Different types of power plants use different energy sources and conversion processes. The overall
conversion efficiency varies significantly between different technologies.

2.1 Steam Power Plant (Thermal)

A steam power plant (also called a thermal or coal-fired plant) converts chemical energy in fuel (coal,
oil, or natural gas) into electrical energy through a thermodynamic cycle — primarily the Rankine cycle.

2.1.1 Working Principle

The basic conversion chain in a steam power plant is:
Chemical Energy → Heat Energy → Mechanical Energy → Electrical
Energy

2.1.2 The Rankine Cycle

The Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which steam power plants operate. It consists of four main
processes:
1. Process 1→2: Isentropic (adiabatic) compression — feed water is pumped to boiler pressure
2. Process 2→3: Constant pressure heat addition — water converts to steam in the boiler
3. Process 3→4: Isentropic expansion — steam expands in the turbine, doing work
4. Process 4→1: Constant pressure heat rejection — steam condensed back to water

2.1.3 Rankine Cycle Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency (η) = W_net / Q_in
η = (Q_in - Q_out) / Q_in = 1 - Q_out/Q_in
W_net = W_turbine - W_pump = (h₃ - h₄) - (h₂ - h₁)
Where h₁, h₂, h₃, h₄ are specific enthalpies at states 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively.

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Rankine Cycle Efficiency

Problem: In a Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at h₃ = 3250 kJ/kg and leaves at h₄ =
2100 kJ/kg. The condenser removes Q_out = 1800 kJ/kg. The pump work is negligible. Find the
thermal efficiency.
Solution:
W_turbine = h₃ - h₄ = 3250 - 2100 = 1150 kJ/kg
Q_in = W_turbine + Q_out = 1150 + 1800 = 2950 kJ/kg
η = W_net / Q_in = 1150 / 2950 = 0.39 = 39%

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2.1.4 Overall Efficiency of a Steam Plant
The overall efficiency is the product of the efficiencies of each component:
Overall Efficiency = η_boiler × η_turbine × η_generator
Typical values: Boiler: 85-92%, Turbine: 85-90%, Generator: 96-99%. Overall: ~35-45%

2.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant (Water Turbine)

A hydroelectric power plant converts the potential energy of stored water (or kinetic energy of flowing
water) into electrical energy. It is one of the cleanest and most efficient energy conversion methods.

2.2.1 Energy Conversion Chain

Potential Energy of Water → Kinetic Energy → Mechanical Energy →
Electrical Energy

2.2.2 Power Available from Water

P = ρ × g × Q × H × η (Watts)
Where: ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81 m/s², Q = flow rate (m³/s), H = effective head (m), η
= overall efficiency
Simplification: P (kW) = 9.81 × Q × H × η

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Hydroelectric Power Calculation

Problem: A hydroelectric plant has an effective head of 50 m and a flow rate of 200 m³/s. The
overall efficiency is 85%. Calculate the power output.
Solution:
P = 9.81 × Q × H × η
P = 9.81 × 200 × 50 × 0.85
P = 83,385 kW ≈ 83.4 MW

2.2.3 Types of Water Turbines

Turbine Type Characteristics
Pelton Wheel Impulse turbine, used for very high heads
(>300 m), tangential flow
Francis Turbine Mixed-flow reaction turbine, medium heads (30-
300 m), most common
Kaplan Turbine Axial-flow propeller turbine, low heads (<30 m),
adjustable blades

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 7 of 24

2.3 Gas Turbine Power Plant
A gas turbine (combustion turbine) plant converts chemical energy of fuel (natural gas or liquid fuel)
directly into mechanical energy using the Brayton cycle, without a boiler or steam.

2.3.1 Brayton Cycle

The ideal cycle for gas turbines, consisting of:
5. Process 1→2: Isentropic compression in the compressor
6. Process 2→3: Constant pressure heat addition (combustion)
7. Process 3→4: Isentropic expansion in the turbine
8. Process 4→1: Constant pressure heat rejection (exhaust)

2.3.2 Ideal Brayton Cycle Efficiency

η_Brayton = 1 - (1 / r_p^((k-1)/k))
Where: r_p = pressure ratio (P₂/P₁), k = ratio of specific heats (for air, k = 1.4)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Brayton Cycle Efficiency

Problem: A gas turbine plant operates with a pressure ratio of 8:1. Assuming ideal Brayton cycle
with k = 1.4, find the thermal efficiency.
Solution:
(k-1)/k = (1.4-1)/1.4 = 0.4/1.4 = 0.2857
r_p^0.2857 = 8^0.2857 = 1.811
η = 1 - (1/1.811) = 1 - 0.5523 = 0.4477 ≈ 44.8%

2.3.3 Net Work Output

W_net = W_turbine - W_compressor
W_turbine = m_g × C_pg × (T₃ - T₄)
W_compressor = m_a × C_pa × (T₂ - T₁)
Where m_g = mass flow of gas, m_a = mass flow of air, C_p = specific heat at constant pressure, T =
temperature at each stage.

2.4 Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant converts nuclear energy (released during fission of heavy atoms such as
Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239) into electrical energy. The nuclear reactor replaces the boiler of a
conventional steam plant.

2.4.1 Nuclear Fission

Energy Released = Δm × c² (Einstein's mass-energy equivalence)
Where: Δm = mass defect (kg), c = speed of light = 3 × 10¸ m/s

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 8 of 24

 1 kg of U-235 releases approximately 8.2 × 10³ TJ (≈ equivalent
to burning 2,700 tonnes of coal)

2.4.2 Components of a Nuclear Reactor

Component Function
Fuel Enriched Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239 in the
form of fuel rods
Moderator Slows down fast neutrons (heavy water D₂O,
graphite, or light water)
Control Rods Absorb neutrons to control reaction rate (boron
or cadmium)
Coolant Removes heat from reactor core (water, CO₂,
liquid sodium)
Reflector Reflects neutrons back into core to reduce
leakage
Biological Shield Thick concrete walls to absorb radiation

2.4.3 Nuclear Plant Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a nuclear power plant is typically 30-35%, lower than modern coal plants due
to lower steam temperatures (limited by reactor design). However, the fuel cost per kWh is very low.
Overall η = η_reactor × η_heat_exchanger × η_turbine ×
η_generator

2.5 Solar Energy – Thermal Conversion

Solar thermal conversion uses solar radiation to generate heat, which is then converted to electricity
using conventional thermodynamic cycles.

2.5.1 Types of Solar Thermal Systems

• Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC): Most widely used CSP technology. Curved mirrors focus
solar radiation onto a receiver tube. Temperatures up to 400°C achieved.
• Solar Power Tower (Central Receiver): An array of heliostats (mirrors) focus sunlight onto a
central receiver at the top of a tower. Temperatures up to 1000°C.
• Parabolic Dish Systems: Point-focus collectors that achieve the highest temperatures (>1500°C)
and efficiencies.
• Solar Pond: Uses a saline (salt) gradient pond to trap solar heat. Low temperature differences
but simple construction.

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 9 of 24

2.5.2 Solar Irradiance and Efficiency
Incident Solar Power = G × A
Where: G = solar irradiance (W/m²), typically 1000 W/m² at peak, A = collector area (m²)
Electrical Output = G × A × η_collector × η_thermal × η_generator

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Solar Thermal Power Calculation

Problem: A parabolic trough CSP plant has a collector area of 50,000 m². Solar irradiance = 900
W/m², collector efficiency = 70%, thermal cycle efficiency = 35%, generator efficiency = 97%.
Find the electrical output.
Solution:
P_out = G × A × η_c × η_th × η_g
P_out = 900 × 50,000 × 0.70 × 0.35 × 0.97
P_out = 45,000,000 × 0.2381 = 10,711,350 W ≈ 10.7 MW

2.5.3 Comparison of Generation Methods

Plant Type Efficiency Key Features
Steam (Coal) 35-45% High emission, dispatchable, well-established
Gas Turbine 40-60% Fast start, lower emissions than coal
(combined cycle)
Hydroelectric 85-95% Clean, renewable, site-dependent
Nuclear 30-35% Zero GHG, high capital cost, fuel issues
Solar Thermal 15-25% Clean, renewable, storage possible

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 10 of 24

 SECTION 3: ABCD Parameters of Transmission Lines

The ABCD parameters (also called generalised circuit constants or two-port network parameters)
provide a convenient method for analysing transmission lines of any length. They relate the sending-
end (source) quantities to the receiving-end (load) quantities.

3.1 The ABCD Parameter Equations

For a transmission line modelled as a two-port network, the sending-end voltage (V_S) and current
(I_S) are related to the receiving-end voltage (V_R) and current (I_R) by:
V_S = A·V_R + B·I_R
I_S = C·V_R + D·I_R
In matrix form:
| V_S | | A B | | V_R |
| I_S | = | C D | | I_R |

🔑 KEY CONCEPT: Properties of ABCD Parameters

• A and D are dimensionless (ratio of voltage to voltage, or current to current)
• B has units of Ohms (Ω) — relates V_S to I_R
• C has units of Siemens (S or mhos) — relates I_S to V_R
• For a passive, bilateral network: AD - BC = 1
• For a symmetric (reciprocal) line: A = D

3.2 Short Transmission Line (< 80 km)

For short lines, the shunt capacitance is neglected. The line is modelled as a simple series impedance
Z = R + jX.

3.2.1 Model and Parameters

Z = R + jX = R + jωL (Ω)
The ABCD parameters for a short line are:
A = D = 1 (dimensionless)
B = Z = R + jX (Ω)
C = 0 (Siemens)
The transmission equations become:
V_S = V_R + I_R · Z
I_S = I_R
Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 11 of 24
 ✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Short Line ABCD Parameters
Problem: A 3-phase, 50 Hz short transmission line has a resistance of 15Ω and inductive
reactance of 20Ω per phase. The receiving end delivers 30 MW at 11 kV, 0.8 pf lagging. Find
the sending-end voltage and current using ABCD parameters.
Solution:
V_R (phase) = 11,000/√3 = 6,351 V (take as reference: 6351∠0° V)
P = √3 V_L I_L cosφ ⇒ I_R = 30×10⁶ / (√3×11,000×0.8) = 1,968.5 A
cosφ=0.8 ⇒ φ=36.87° ⇒ I_R = 1968.5∠-36.87° = (1574.8 - j1181.1) A
Z = 15 + j20 Ω; A=D=1, B=Z, C=0
V_S = A·V_R + B·I_R = 1×6351 + (15+j20)(1574.8-j1181.1)
(15+j20)(1574.8-j1181.1) = 23622-17716.5j+31496j+23622 = 47222+13779.5j
V_S = (6351+47222) + j13779.5 = 53573 + j13779.5
|V_S| = √(53573²+13779.5²) = 55,326 V (phase) = 95.8 kV (line)
I_S = I_R = 1968.5 A (short line: no shunt path)

3.3 Medium Transmission Line (80 – 250 km)

For medium lines, both resistance, inductance AND shunt capacitance are included. Two models are
used:

3.3.1 Nominal-T Model

Half the series impedance (Z/2) is placed on each side of the shunt admittance (Y) — like the letter T.
Parameters: Z = total series impedance, Y = total shunt
admittance
A = D = 1 + ZY/2
B = Z(1 + ZY/4)
C = Y

3.3.2 Nominal-Π (Pi) Model

Half the shunt admittance (Y/2) is placed at each end, with the full series impedance Z in the middle —
like the Greek letter π. This model is more commonly used in practice.
A = D = 1 + ZY/2
B = Z
C = Y(1 + ZY/4)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Nominal-Pi Model ABCD Parameters

Problem: A 3-phase medium transmission line, 150 km long, has: r=0.1Ω/km, x=0.4Ω/km,
y=j2.8×10⁻⁶ S/km. Receiving end: 100 MVA at 110 kV, 0.9 pf lagging. Find ABCD parameters.
Solution:
Z = (0.1+j0.4)×150 = 15+j60 Ω
Y = j2.8×10⁻⁶×150 = j4.2×10⁻⁴ S

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 12 of 24

 ZY = (15+j60)(j4.2×10⁻⁴) = j6.3×10⁻³ - 25.2×10⁻³ = (-0.0252+j0.0063)
A = D = 1 + ZY/2 = 1 + (-0.0252+j0.0063)/2 = 0.9874 + j0.00315
B = Z = 15 + j60 Ω
C = Y(1+ZY/4) ≈ j4.2×10⁻⁴ × (1+(-0.0063+j0.001575))
C ≈ (-6.6×10⁻⁷ + j4.19×10⁻⁴) S

3.4 Long Transmission Line (> 250 km)

For long lines, distributed parameter analysis is required. The exact ABCD parameters use hyperbolic
functions and the propagation constant.

3.4.1 Propagation Constant

γ = √(zy) (propagation constant per unit length)
Where z = series impedance per unit length (Ω/km), y = shunt admittance per unit length (S/km)
γ = α + jβ
α = attenuation constant (Np/km), β = phase constant (rad/km)

3.4.2 Characteristic Impedance

Z_c = √(z/y) (Ω)

3.4.3 Exact ABCD Parameters

A = D = cosh(γl)
B = Z_c · sinh(γl) (Ω)
C = (1/Z_c) · sinh(γl) (S)
Where l = length of line (km). Using hyperbolic expansions for practical calculations:
cosh(γl) = 1 + (γl)²/2! + (γl)⁴/4! + ...
sinh(γl) = γl + (γl)³/3! + (γl)⁵/5! + ...

3.4.4 Summary of ABCD Parameters

Line Type ABCD Parameters Notes
Short Line (<80 km) A=D=1, B=Z, C=0 Series Z only
Medium Line – Nom. T A=D=1+ZY/2, B=Z(1+ZY/4), C=Y Lumped Π
Medium Line – Nom. Π A=D=1+ZY/2, B=Z, C=Y(1+ZY/4) Lumped T
Long Line (>250 km) A=D=cosh(γl), B=Zₙsinh(γl), Distributed
C=sinh(γl)/Zₙ

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 13 of 24

 SECTION 4: Load Flow Studies

Load flow analysis (also called power flow analysis) is the most fundamental study in power system
engineering. It determines the steady-state operating conditions of an electric power network —
specifically the voltage magnitudes and angles at all buses, and the real and reactive power flows in all
branches.

4.1 Bus Classification

In load flow studies, each bus (node) in the power system is classified into one of three types,
depending on the quantities that are specified and those that are to be found:

Bus Type Known Unknown Notes

Slack Bus |V| and δ P and Q Only 1 per system; balances power;
(Reference/Swing) usually a large generator
Generator Bus (PV P and |V| δ and Q Generators with voltage control; Q
Bus) within limits
Load Bus (PQ Bus) P and Q |V| and δ All load buses; no generation; most
common type

4.2 Network Equations – Bus Admittance Matrix (Y_bus)

The nodal admittance matrix (Y_bus) is the foundation of load flow analysis. For a system with n buses,
Y_bus is an n×n matrix.

4.2.1 Formation of Y_bus

Diagonal element: Y_ii = Sum of all admittances connected to bus
i
Off-diagonal element: Y_ij = Y_ji = -(admittance of branch
between buses i and j)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Simple Y_bus Formation

Problem: A 3-bus system has the following line admittances: y₁₂=1-j4 S, y₁₃=2-j8 S, y₂₃=1-j4
S. No shunt elements. Form Y_bus.
Solution:
Y₁₁ = y₁₂ + y₁₃ = (1-j4)+(2-j8) = 3-j12 S
Y₂₂ = y₁₂ + y₂₃ = (1-j4)+(1-j4) = 2-j8 S
Y₃₃ = y₁₃ + y₂₃ = (2-j8)+(1-j4) = 3-j12 S
Y₁₂=Y₂₁=-(1-j4)=-1+j4 Y₁₃=Y₃₁=-(2-j8)=-2+j8 Y₂₃=Y₃₂=-(1-j4)=-1+j4
Y_bus = | 3-j12 -1+j4 -2+j8 |

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 14 of 24

 | -1+j4 2-j8 -1+j4 |
| -2+j8 -1+j4 3-j12 |

4.3 Load Flow Equations

The complex power injected at bus i is:
S_i = P_i + jQ_i = V_i · I_i*
Using bus admittance matrix: I_i = Σ Y_ij V_j (sum over all j)
P_i + jQ_i = V_i* · Σ Y_ij V_j
Expanding (with V_i = |V_i|∠δ_i, Y_ij = |Y_ij|∠θ_ij):
P_i = Σ |V_i||V_j||Y_ij| cos(δ_i - δ_j - θ_ij)
Q_i = Σ |V_i||V_j||Y_ij| sin(δ_i - δ_j - θ_ij)
These are the fundamental, non-linear load flow equations that must be solved iteratively.

4.4 Gauss-Seidel Method

The Gauss-Seidel method is one of the simplest iterative methods for solving the load flow equations.

4.4.1 Iteration Formula

For a PQ bus (load bus), at iteration (k+1):
V_i^(k+1) = (1/Y_ii) × [(P_i - jQ_i)/V_i*^(k) - Σ(j≠i) Y_ij V_j]
Where: P_i and Q_i are the specified (scheduled) net injections at bus i (generation minus load).

4.4.2 Algorithm
9. Form the Y_bus matrix
10. Make initial voltage estimates: typically V_i = 1.0∠0° (flat start)
11. For each load (PQ) bus, calculate the updated voltage using the G-S formula
12. For generator (PV) buses: update δ while keeping |V| fixed; recalculate Q
13. Check convergence: if max |ΔV_i| ≤ ε (tolerance, e.g. 10⁻⁴), stop
14. Otherwise, go to step 3
15. Calculate branch power flows and slack bus power after convergence

ℹ️ NOTE: Gauss-Seidel: Advantages and Limitations

Advantages: Simple to program, low memory requirements, straightforward to implement
Limitations: Slow convergence (especially for large systems), may not converge for heavily
loaded systems, convergence rate depends on Y_bus structure

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 15 of 24

4.5 Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson (N-R) method is the most widely used load flow solution technique due to its fast
convergence (quadratic convergence). It linearises the load flow equations at each iteration.

4.5.1 Mismatch Equations

ΔP_i^(k) = P_i(scheduled) - P_i^(k)(calculated)
ΔQ_i^(k) = Q_i(scheduled) - Q_i^(k)(calculated)

4.5.2 Jacobian Equations

At each iteration, the corrections [Δδ, Δ|V|/|V|] are found by solving:
| ΔP | | J₁ J₂ | | Δδ |
| ΔQ | = | J₃ J₄ | | Δ|V|/|V| |
Where J₁, J₂, J₃, J₄ are the sub-matrices of the Jacobian matrix.
Δδ and Δ|V|/|V| are found by: [J]⁻¹ [ΔP, ΔQ]ᵀ

4.5.3 Jacobian Elements

J₁: ∂P_i/∂δ_j and ∂P_i/∂δ_i
Off-diagonal (i≠j): ∂P_i/∂δ_j = |V_i||V_j||Y_ij| sin(δ_i-δ_j-
θ_ij)
Diagonal: ∂P_i/∂δ_i = -Q_i - |V_i|² B_ii
(Similarly for J₂, J₃, J₄ with appropriate partial derivatives)

4.5.4 N-R Algorithm

16. Form Y_bus, initialise voltages (flat start)
17. Calculate P and Q at each bus from the current voltage solution
18. Calculate mismatches ΔP and ΔQ
19. Form the Jacobian matrix J
20. Solve J×[Δδ, Δ|V|/|V|] = [ΔP, ΔQ]
21. Update: δ^(k+1) = δ^(k) + Δδ; |V|^(k+1) = |V|^(k)(1 + Δ|V|/|V|)
22. Check convergence. If max(|ΔP|, |ΔQ|) ≤ ε, stop
23. Otherwise repeat from step 2

🔑 KEY CONCEPT: N-R vs Gauss-Seidel Comparison

Newton-Raphson: Faster convergence (2-5 iterations typical), good for large systems, quadratic
convergence near solution — but Jacobian computation is expensive per iteration
Gauss-Seidel: Simple, low cost per iteration, but needs many more iterations (50-200 typical),
slower for large/poorly-conditioned systems

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 16 of 24

4.6 Decoupled and Fast-Decoupled Load Flow
In high-voltage transmission systems, there is an approximate decoupling: real power P is most
sensitive to voltage angle δ, and reactive power Q is most sensitive to voltage magnitude |V|. This
leads to the decoupled load flow.
[ΔP] = [J₁] [Δδ] (P-δ sub-problem)
[ΔQ] = [J₄] [Δ|V|/|V|] (Q-|V| sub-problem)
In the Fast-Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF), further approximations (J₁ ≈ B', J₄ ≈ B'') produce constant
matrices, leading to much faster computation:
[B'][Δδ] = ΔP/|V|
[B''][Δ|V|] = ΔQ/|V|
Where B' and B'' are constant susceptance matrices computed once and factorised, making each
iteration very fast.

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 17 of 24

 SECTION 5: Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

Voltage and reactive power control is one of the most important aspects of power system operation.
Maintaining bus voltages within acceptable limits (typically ±5% of nominal) is essential for equipment
safety, power quality, and system stability.

5.1 Relationship Between Voltage and Reactive Power

The approximate relationship between bus voltage deviation and reactive power injection in a power
system is given by:
ΔV ≈ ΔQ · X / V
Where: ΔV = voltage deviation, ΔQ = change in reactive power injection, X = system reactance, V =
nominal voltage
This shows that: injecting reactive power (capacitive, Q > 0) raises the voltage, while absorbing reactive
power (inductive, Q < 0) lowers the voltage. This forms the basis of all voltage control methods.

5.2 Methods of Voltage Control

There are several methods for controlling voltage in a power system. These may be classified as:

5.2.1 Excitation Control (Automatic Voltage Regulator – AVR)

The most important means of voltage control in generators. By adjusting the field current of the
synchronous generator, the generated EMF — and hence the terminal voltage and reactive power
output — can be controlled.
E_f = V_t + I_a(R_a + jX_s)
Where E_f = field excitation voltage, V_t = terminal voltage, X_s = synchronous reactance
• Increasing field current → over-excitation → generator supplies Q (capacitive) → voltage rises
• Decreasing field current → under-excitation → generator absorbs Q (inductive) → voltage falls

5.2.2 Shunt Capacitor and Reactor Banks

Static capacitor banks inject reactive power into the system and raise bus voltage. Shunt reactors
absorb reactive power and reduce overvoltages (common in long EHV lines under light load).
Q_C = V² / X_C = V² · ωC (VAR injected by capacitor)
Q_L = V² / X_L = V² / (ωL) (VAR absorbed by reactor)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Shunt Capacitor Rating

Problem: A load bus operates at 10.5 kV (instead of 11 kV nominal). The bus short-circuit
reactance is 15Ω. What is the required shunt capacitor bank rating to restore voltage to 11 kV?
Solution:

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 18 of 24

 ΔV = 11.0 - 10.5 = 0.5 kV = 500 V
ΔQ = ΔV × V / X = 500 × 11,000 / 15 = 366,667 VAR ≈ 0.367 MVAR
A shunt capacitor bank of ≈ 0.37 MVAR is required at this bus.

5.2.3 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

An SVC is a shunt-connected device that can continuously vary its reactive power output. It typically
consists of a Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR) in parallel with Fixed Capacitor banks (FC).
• TCR: A reactor controlled by thyristors — firing angle α controls the effective reactance, hence
Q absorption
• FC: Provides a fixed capacitive Q injection
• The combination gives a range from leading to lagging reactive power
Q_SVC = Q_C(fixed) - Q_TCR(α)

5.2.4 Series Capacitors

Series capacitors are inserted in series with the transmission line to reduce the effective inductive
reactance. This improves voltage regulation and increases power transfer capability.
Effective X_line = X_L - X_C
Degree of compensation (k) = X_C / X_L × 100%
Typical compensation: 40-70%. Must be protected against sub-synchronous resonance (SSR).

5.2.5 Synchronous Condensers

A synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor running at no-load. By adjusting its excitation, it can
supply or absorb reactive power, acting like a variable capacitor or inductor.
• Over-excited: supplies Q → raises voltage (acts as capacitor)
• Under-excited: absorbs Q → lowers voltage (acts as inductor)
• Advantage: smooth, continuous control; disadvantage: high cost and losses

5.3 Tap-Changing Transformers

Tap-changing transformers are the most widely used method of voltage control in distribution and sub-
transmission networks. By changing the transformer turns ratio (tap position), the secondary voltage
can be raised or lowered.

5.3.1 Off-Load Tap Changing

Tap changes can only be made when the transformer is de-energised. Used where voltage adjustment
is infrequent (e.g., permanent seasonal adjustments).

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 19 of 24

5.3.2 On-Load Tap Changing (OLTC)
OLTC transformers allow tap changes while the transformer is energised and on full load. An OLTC
transformer has a special switching mechanism that ensures no interruption to the load current and no
short-circuiting of taps during the changeover.

5.3.3 Voltage Control by Tap Changing

If the nominal turns ratio is a₀ = N₁/N₂, and the tap is changed to a new ratio a, the new secondary
voltage becomes:
V₂_new = V₂_nominal × (a₀ / a)
For a transformer with taps in steps of δ (e.g., 1.25% steps), with n taps above or below nominal:
a = a₀ (1 ± n·δ)

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: OLTC Tap Position Calculation

Problem: A 33/11 kV OLTC transformer has taps of ±10% in steps of 1.25% (i.e., 9 taps above
and below nominal). The primary voltage is 33 kV and the desired secondary voltage is 11.5 kV.
Find the required tap position.
Solution:
Nominal ratio a₀ = 33/11 = 3.0
Required turns ratio a = V₁/V₂_desired = 33/11.5 = 2.869
a = a₀(1 - n·δ) ⇒ 2.869 = 3.0(1 - n×0.0125)
(1 - n×0.0125) = 2.869/3.0 = 0.9563
n = (1 - 0.9563)/0.0125 = 0.0437/0.0125 = 3.5 ≈ 3 or 4 taps above
nominal
Tap 3: V₂ = 33/(3.0×0.9625) = 11.43 kV; Tap 4: V₂ = 33/(3.0×0.95) =
11.58 kV

5.4 Combined Use of Tap-Changing Transformers and Reactive Power

In practice, voltage control is most effective when tap-changing transformers and reactive power
compensation devices are used together in a coordinated manner. Each method alone has limitations:
• Tap-changing alone: Cannot increase voltage beyond what is thermally possible in the network.
It simply redistributes voltage; it cannot create or absorb reactive power.
• Reactive power alone (capacitors/reactors): May not achieve the precise voltage profile needed
at all buses simultaneously.

5.4.1 Combined Operation Principle

The key principle of combined operation is:
V_R = A·V_S - B·I_R (receiving-end voltage)
For a transformer-feeder system, the combined effect of tap changing (adjusting turns ratio t) and
reactive power injection (Q_C) gives:
V_R = (1/t)·V_S - I_R·Z + Q_C·X/V_R
• The tap ratio (1/t) scales the source voltage seen at the receiving end

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 • The reactive injection Q_C·X/V compensates for the reactive voltage drop I_R·X

5.4.2 Coordination Strategy

A practical coordination strategy works as follows:
24. Primary voltage control: Use AVR on generators and large reactive sources (SVCs,
synchronous condensers) to control HV bus voltages.
25. Bulk reactive compensation: Install switched capacitor/reactor banks at substations to provide or
absorb bulk reactive power and correct power factor.
26. Fine voltage control: Use OLTC transformers to control LV distribution voltages within tight
bounds.
27. Local fine-tuning: Small capacitors or voltage regulators for final adjustment at load points.
✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Combined Tap and Reactive Power Control
Problem: A 33/11 kV transformer feeds a load of 10 MW at 0.8 pf lagging. Line impedance
referred to 11 kV: Z = 0.5+j1.0 Ω. Without any control, receiving voltage is 10.2 kV. Find: (a)
Required capacitor bank, and (b) Final tap adjustment if target is 11.0 kV.
Solution:
Step 1 – Find load current:
I = P / (√3 × V × pf) = 10×10⁶ / (√3×10,200×0.8) = 708.5 A
Step 2 – Reactive current and voltage drop:
cosφ=0.8 ⇒ sinφ=0.6; I_R=708.5×0.8=566.8 A; I_X=708.5×0.6=425.1 A
ΔV = (I_R·R + I_X·X)/V = (566.8×0.5 + 425.1×1.0)/10,200 = 0.0695 =
6.95% drop
Step 3 – Capacitor to eliminate reactive voltage drop:
Q_C needed = I_X²×X / ΔV... (practical approach) Q_C = Q_load =
10×0.75=7.5 MVAR
Step 4 – With Q_C installed (pf→1.0), new voltage drop = I_R·R/V =
566.8×0.5/10,200 ≈ 0.028 = 2.8%
New V_R ≈ 10,200 + (10,200×0.028) ≈ 10,485 V = 10.49 kV
Step 5 – Tap setting to reach 11 kV: boost ratio = 11.0/10.49 = 1.049 ⇒
≈ +4 taps at 1.25% each

5.5 Booster Transformers

A booster transformer is a special transformer connected in series with a line to inject a voltage — in-
phase or in quadrature — into the line. Unlike OLTC transformers which change the overall turns ratio,
booster transformers add a voltage increment to the existing line voltage.

5.5.1 Operating Principle

A booster transformer consists of a series transformer whose secondary is connected in series with the
line, and a shunt transformer (excitation transformer) whose primary is connected across the line
supply. The injected voltage V_B is the secondary voltage of the series transformer.
V_R = V_S ± V_B
Where V_B = boosted voltage (injected), V_S = source voltage, V_R = resultant receiving-end voltage

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 21 of 24

5.5.2 Types of Voltage Injection
• In-phase booster: Injects voltage in phase with the line voltage → controls voltage magnitude
• Quadrature booster: Injects voltage in quadrature (90°) with the line voltage → controls real
power flow (phase angle)
• Phase-angle regulator: Injects voltage at a variable angle → controls both magnitude and phase

5.5.3 Rating of a Booster Transformer

The rating (kVA) of a booster transformer depends on the injected voltage and the line current:
kVA_booster = V_B × I_line / 1000
A booster can provide a much larger voltage change per kVA of its own rating compared to a
conventional OLTC transformer, since it handles only the boost voltage, not the full line voltage.

✨ SOLVED EXAMPLE: Booster Transformer Rating

Problem: A single-phase 11 kV feeder carries a current of 150 A. A booster transformer is
required to raise the line voltage by 5% (i.e., boost voltage = 5% of 11 kV = 550 V). Find the kVA
rating of the booster transformer and compare to the load kVA.
Solution:
V_B = 5% × 11,000 = 550 V
kVA_booster = V_B × I_line = 550 × 150 = 82,500 VA = 82.5 kVA
Load kVA = 11,000 × 150 = 1,650,000 VA = 1,650 kVA
Booster rating = 82.5/1650 = 5% of load kVA — very economical!
The booster transformer rating is always equal to (% boost / 100) × load kVA

5.5.4 Advantages of Booster Transformers

• Can be installed at any point in an existing feeder without replacing the main transformer
• Economical rating — only rated for the injected voltage, not the full line voltage
• Flexible — can be permanently connected or installed temporarily
• For quadrature boosters, allows control of real power flow between parallel feeders

5.5.5 Comparison: Tap-Changing vs Booster Transformers

Feature Tap-Changing Transformer Booster Transformer
Location At the main substation transformer Anywhere along the feeder
Interruption required OLTC: no interruption; Off-load: Minimal; series connection
yes
Rating Full transformer rating Only the boost kVA (very
economical)
Control type Voltage magnitude only Magnitude or phase angle
(quadrature)
Flexibility Fixed location Can be moved or added to
existing lines
Cost High (part of main transformer) Lower; standalone unit

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5.6 Summary of Voltage Control Methods
Method Advantages Limitations
Generator AVR Continuous, smooth Only effective near generator
bus
Shunt Capacitors Economical, static Fixed or switched; voltage-
dependent output
Shunt Reactors Controls overvoltage Only absorbs Q
OLTC Transformers Widely used, no reactive power Steps, not continuous
Booster Transformers Flexible, economical rating Limited range of boost
SVC / STATCOM Fast, continuous, bidirectional High capital cost
Synchronous Condenser Smooth, continuous Expensive, has losses
Series Capacitors Increases transfer capacity Risk of SSR

ℹ️ NOTE: Important: Reactive Power Cannot Be Transmitted Economically Over

Long Distances
Reactive power causes significant voltage drops and I²R losses when transmitted over long
lines. It is therefore best practice to GENERATE reactive power as close as possible to where it
is CONSUMED. This is the fundamental reason why shunt compensation (capacitor banks,
SVCs) are distributed throughout the network rather than concentrated at one central location.

Electrical Power Systems – Comprehensive Notes | Page 23 of 24

 References and Further Reading

The following references are recommended for deeper study of the topics covered in these notes:

• Stevenson, W.D. (1982). Elements of Power System Analysis. McGraw-Hill.

• Glover, J.D., Sarma, M.S. & Overbye, T.J. Power Systems Analysis and Design. Cengage
Learning.
• Bergen, A.R. & Vittal, V. Power Systems Analysis. Prentice Hall.
• Kothari, D.P. & Nagrath, I.J. Modern Power System Analysis. Tata McGraw-Hill.
• Weedy, B.M. et al. Electric Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons.
• Mathur, R.M. & Varma, R.K. Thyristor-Based FACTS Controllers for Electrical Transmission
Systems. Wiley-IEEE.
• IEC 60076: Power Transformers Standard. International Electrotechnical Commission.

— End of Notes —

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