Planet Earth Course

(GEOL 110)
Earth Shaping Processes

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Earth Shaping processes

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 Objective of this chapter

[Link] (Exogenic) Processes

II. Biological Processes
III. Role of Climate in Earth-Shaping Processes
[Link] (Endogenic) Processes

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Session 1
 Earth Shaping processes
The Earth is a dynamic planet, constantly reshaped by internal forces like
plate tectonics, earthquakes, and volcanism, and external processes such
as weathering, erosion, and deposition. These interactions continuously
transform the Earth’s surface, creating mountains, oceans, and
landscapes, showing that our planet is always evolving.

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 Earth Shaping processes
Effect on
Process Type Forces Examples Climate Influence
Landscape

Volcanoes,
Internal Earth’s heat, earthquakes, Constructive – Climate has little
(Endogenic) tectonics mountain creates landforms direct effect
building

Strong:
Weathering, determines
External Sun, water, wind, Destructive –
erosion, weathering type,
(Exogenic) gravity, ice reshapes surface
deposition erosion &
transport

Climate controls
Coral reefs, soil
Plants, animals, Both constructive vegetation cover,
Biological formation,
humans & destructive soil moisture, and
urbanization
human land use
 External (Exogenic)
1. External (Exogenic) processes
Driven by sunlight, water, wind, gravity, and ice.
 Weathering → breakdown of rocks (mechanical, chemical, biological).
 Erosion & Transportation → removal and movement of sediments by rivers,
wind, glaciers, waves.
 Deposition → sediments laid down to form new landforms (deltas, beaches,
dunes).
Effect: Wear down Earth’s surface (destructive).
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
Weathering is a silent architect of Earth’s landscapes. By disintegrating and
altering rocks, it enables erosion, creates distinctive landforms like karst and
rounded hills, generates soils, and drives the continuous transformation of
mountains into plains. It is therefore one of the most fundamental earth-shaping
processes, linking geology, climate, and life in the long-term evolution of the
planet’s surface.
Weathering is the process by which rocks at or near the Earth’s surface are broken
down into smaller particles through physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Unlike erosion, weathering does not involve transportation — it only alters rocks in
place.
 (Types of weathering)

A. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

Breakdown of rocks without changing
their chemical composition.
Main processes:
• Frost wedging (water freezes in cracks
and expands).
• Thermal expansion (daily
heating/cooling causes cracks).
• Exfoliation (outer rock layers peel off).
• Abrasion (wind, water, glaciers wearing
rock surfaces).
 (Types of weathering)

B. Chemical Weathering
Decomposition of rocks through chemical
reactions with water, air, or acids.
Main processes:
• Hydrolysis (feldspar → clay minerals).
• Oxidation (iron-bearing minerals →
rust/hematite).
• Carbonation (calcite dissolves in carbonic acid
→ caves, karst).
• Solution (minerals dissolve completely in
water).
 (Types of weathering)

C. Biological Weathering
Breakdown of rocks due to living organisms.
Main processes:
• Plant roots grow into cracks and split rocks.
• Lichens and mosses secrete acids that
dissolve minerals.
• Burrowing animals expose rocks to air and
water.
• Human activity (quarrying, pollution-
induced acid rain).
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
1. Reduction of relief and mountain
leveling
• Newly uplifted mountains are steep
and rugged, but mechanical
weathering gradually fractures
rocks.
• Chemical weathering alters minerals
into softer products such as clay
and oxides.
• These processes weaken the rock
mass, allowing erosion to strip
material away and progressively
reduce relief.
• Over millions of years, this drives
the geomorphic cycle of mountains
evolving into subdued plains.
External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
2. Formation of Karst Landscapes
• In carbonate terrains, chemical
weathering by slightly acidic water
dissolves limestone and dolomite.
• This dissolution creates distinctive
landforms: caves, sinkholes,
disappearing streams, and underground
rivers.
• At larger scales, entire regions become
karst plateaus, tower karst, or karst
valleys—unique geomorphological
systems driven almost entirely by
weathering.
External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)

3. Development of rounded Landforms

• In humid or tropical climates,
spheroidal weathering attacks rock
corners and edges, producing rounded
boulders and hill slopes.
• Over long timescales, mass spheroidal
weathering transforms rugged
landscapes into smooth, rolling
terrains.
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
4. Soil and Regolith Formation
• Weathering is the primary process that
produces soils and regolith (the loose,
weathered mantle of rock and sediment
covering bedrock).
• This layer is crucial for slope stability,
hydrology, vegetation growth, and
sediment supply to rivers and oceans.
• Without weathering, Earth would lack
fertile soil cover, drastically altering
both geomorphology and life.
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
5. Climate–Weathering–Geomorphology Link
1. In arid regions, mechanical weathering dominates, producing blocky
landforms and desert pavements.
2. In humid climates, chemical weathering creates deep lateritic profiles,
saprolite, and rounded hill forms.
 External (Exogenic)
(Weathering)
6. Driver of the Geomorphic Cycle
• Weathering is the initial step that fuels erosion and transport, feeding rivers,
glaciers, and wind with material.
• It ensures that tectonic uplift is counterbalanced by surface lowering,
maintaining the long-term equilibrium of Earth’s topography.
 Factors that influence weathering:

1. Climate
2. Time
3. Mineral composition
Session 2
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
• Erosion is the removal and
transport of weathered rock and
soil by natural agents such as
water, wind, ice, and gravity.
• It operates in close connection with
weathering (which breaks down rocks
in place) and deposition (which lays
down transported material), together
forming the fundamental processes
that sculpt Earth’s surface.

Erosion in Hafit Mountain produced by running water or wind

 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)

1. Erosion by running water

• Rivers and streams are the most
powerful erosional agents.
• They cut deep valleys and gorges, carve
V-shaped channels, and transport
sediments downstream.
• Over time, rivers can create floodplains,
deltas, and alluvial fans, continually
reshaping landscapes.
External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
2. Erosion by Glaciers
• Moving ice masses scrape, pluck, and
abrade rock surfaces. As the ice in a
glacier flows downhill, it pushes, drags,
and carries rocks, soil, and sediment.
• Glacial erosion produces U-shaped
valleys, cirques, fjords, and hanging
valleys.
• During ice ages, glaciers dramatically
reshape entire regions, lowering
mountains and redistributing sediments.
External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
3. Erosion by Wind
• In arid and semi-arid regions, wind is
a dominant force.
• It deflates loose particles to form
desert pavements and
mushroom-shaped forms.
• Wind-borne sediments also
accumulate into dunes and loess
plains.
External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
4. Erosion by Waves and Coastal
Processes
• Along coastlines, waves and currents
erode cliffs, headlands, and beaches.
• Marine erosion forms sea arches,
stacks, and wave-cut platforms, shifting
coastal geomorphology.
External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
5. Gravity-Driven Erosion (Mass Wasting)
• Landslides, rockfalls, and soil creep move
material downslope under gravity.
• These processes rapidly reshape mountain
slopes and valleys, often feeding rivers with
large sediment loads.
 External (Exogenic)
(Erosion)
Erosion in Geomorphology
• Erosion is the dynamic sculptor of landscapes, working hand in hand with
tectonic uplift and weathering.
• It balances uplift by wearing down elevated terrains and redistributing
sediments to basins and oceans.
• Over geological timescales, erosion drives the geomorphic cycle:
mountains uplift → weathering and erosion lower relief → plains form →
renewed uplift restarts the cycle.

Erosion is one of the most powerful earth-shaping processes in geomorphology.

By carving valleys, smoothing mountains, sculpting coasts, and redistributing
sediments, erosion continuously transforms the Earth’s surface and maintains
the balance between tectonic construction and surface destruction.
External (Exogenic)
(Deposition)
 External (Exogenic)
(Deposition)

Geomorphological
Agent of Deposition Mechanism Key Landforms Produced
Significance

Builds fertile plains,

Loss of stream energy causes Deltas, alluvial fans,
Rivers supports agriculture, shapes
sediment to settle floodplains, levees
valleys

Reshapes post-glacial
Melting ice drops transported Moraines, drumlins, eskers,
Glaciers landscapes, creates rolling
debris (till, outwash) outwash plains
terrain and fertile soils

Creates desert landforms,

Wind velocity decreases, dropping
Wind Sand dunes, loess plains deposits fertile loess for
sand and silt
farming

Shapes coasts, buffers

Waves/Coastal Deposition of sediments along Beaches, spits, bars, barrier
erosion, forms dynamic
Currents shorelines islands
coastal systems

Downslope movement Talus slopes, colluvial Feeds rivers with sediments,

Gravity (Mass Wasting)
accumulates debris deposits stabilizes slopes over time
External (Exogenic)
(Deposition)
Role of Climate in Earth-Shaping Processes
1. Influence on Weathering
 Humid & Warm climates → dominate chemical weathering (dissolution,
hydrolysis, oxidation).
 Cold & Dry climates → dominate physical/mechanical weathering (freeze–thaw,
exfoliation).
2. Influence on Erosion & Transport
 High rainfall / humid climates → strong river erosion, landslides, rapid soil
formation.
 Arid climates (deserts) → wind erosion (dunes, sandblasting).
 Cold climates (glacial regions) → glaciers carve valleys, transport rocks long
distances.
3. Influence on Deposition
 Tropical climates → thick soils, laterites, deltas from river systems.
 Polar/glacial climates → moraines, eskers, till deposits.
 Desert climates → sand dunes, alluvial fans.

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Session 2
 Internal (Endogenic)
Processes
What is Plate Tectonics?

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Continental Drift

 The hypothesis that continents are mobile.

 Proposed by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener (1930).
 Wegener hypothesized a former supercontinent Pangaea.
 Idea was based on abundant evidence.
“Fit” of the continents.
Location of glaciations.
Fossil evidence.
Rock type and structural similarities.
Paleoclimatic evidence.
Continental Drift-Continental
“Fit”
 Wegener noted the continents seem to fit together.
 He argued that the fit could not be coincidental.
 Present shorelines make a rough fit.
 The continental shelf edges make a better fit.
Continental Drift-Glacial
Evidence
 Permian glacial till is found on 4 continents.
 The tills in Africa and India are now near equator.
 A cooler earth? No, tropical plants are also preserved.
Continental Drift-Fossil Evidence

 Identical fossils found on widely separated land.

 These organisms could not
have crossed an ocean.
Continental Drift-Matching Geology

 Geologic phenomenon match across the Atlantic.

 Geologic structures.
 Rock types.
 Rock ages.
 Continuity of mountain ranges.
Continental Drift

 Why wasn’t Continental Drift accepted?

 The drift hypothesis awaited the evidence provided
by paleomagnetism.
Paleomagnetism – Apparent Pole
Wandering

 Paleomagnetic signature from ancient lava flows

found not to align with the present magnetic field.
 Thought to indicate the past migration of magnetic
poles (polar wander).
 The Ocean Floor

 During the 1950s, oceanographers

mapped the bathymetry of most of the
worlds oceans using sonar.
 They were surprised!
 The deepest parts of the ocean (trenches)
were not in the middle, but near land.
 A mountain range (the mid-ocean ridge) runs
through every ocean basin.
 Chains of submarine volcanoes run in straight
lines across ocean floors.
 The mid-ocean ridge is offset by large fracture
zones.
 Seafloor Spreading

 In 1960, Harry Hess published his “Essay in Geopoetry.”

 He called his theory “sea-floor spreading”.
 Upwelling mantle erupts at the mid-ocean ridges.
 New crust moves away from ridges, gathering sediment.
 At trenches, the sea-floor dives back into the mantle.
 Provided a potential mechanism for continental drift.
Seafloor Spreading – Magnetic Stripes

 Newly formed seafloor basalts record Earth’s magnetic field

at the time of crystallization
 Patterns of magnetic reversal are symmetric on either side
of ridges
 Intensity of magnetic field
Seafloor Spreading – Magnetic Stripes

 Drilling in the late 1960s recovered crust samples.

 Ages increase away from the MOR.
 Ages are “mirror images” across the MOR.
 Strong supporting evidence for sea-floor spreading.
 Plate Tectonic Theory
Combines ideas of continental drift & seafloor
spreading

 Rigid lithosphere is divided

into plates
 Plates move relative to each
other over plastic
asthenosphere
 Divergent, convergent,
transform
 Driven by convection in the
mantle
 Consequences: earthquakes,
volcanoes, mountains, etc.
 Plate Boundaries

 Lithosphere is fragmented into ~ 20 tectonic plates.

 Plates move continuously at a rate of 1 to 15 cm/yr.
 This motion appears to be slow on a human time scale.
 Yet, it is extremely rapid on a geologic time scale.
 Plates interact along their boundaries.
 How and Why do tectonic Plates
move around?
“Plates” are moved around by the underlying hot
mantle convection cells

1. In the mantle, hot material rises

upward
2. The hot material reaches the
base of the lithosphere where it
cools and sinks back down
through the mantle.
3. This slow but incessant
movement in the mantle causes
the rigid tectonic plates to
move (float)
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 Convergent Boundaries: Responsible for mountain
building, volcanic activity, earthquakes, and tsunamis.
 Divergent Boundaries: Responsible for seafloor
spreading, creation of new oceanic crust, and volcanic
activity at mid-ocean ridges.
Plate Boundaries

 Divergent – Tectonic plates move apart.

Divergent Boundaries

 Sea-floor spreading causes plates to move apart.

 Magma wells up to fill the gap.
 Magma cools, adding material to each plate.
 Iceland: An example of continental rifting

Iceland is located right on top

of a divergent boundary.

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Plate Boundaries

 Convergent – Tectonic plates move together.

 Convergent Boundaries

 Lithospheric plates move toward one another.

 One plate dives back into the mantle (subduction).
 Subduction recycles oceanic lithosphere.
 Subduction is balanced by sea-floor spreading.
 Earth maintains a constant circumference.
 Convergent Boundaries

• There are three styles of

convergent plate boundaries
• Continent-oceanic crust collision
• Ocean-ocean collision
• Continent-continent collision

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 Convergent Boundaries

 Oceanic-continental
 The denser oceanic plate is
subducted under the
continental plate
 A subduction complex
forms on the continent side
of the trench
 Partial melting of the
descending oceanic plate
forms an andesitic volcano
mountain range (Volcanic
arc)
• Cascades, Andes
 Subduction

The Andes mountain

The continental crust of the South
American plate has buckled under the
Antarctic plates

Additionally, there are many

volcanoes has risen 63
 Oceanic-Oceanic
When two oceanic plates
collide, one plate is often
subducted beneath the
other, forming an island
arc, like the Mariana Islands
(Basalt). The subduction of
the oceanic plate triggers
the melting of mantle
material, which rises to the
surface and cools to form
new oceanic crust.
 Convergent Boundaries

 Continental-continental
 Low density continental
crust is not subducted, but
may partially underlie the
other continental plate
 When two continental plates
collide, the enormous force
of the impact causes the
Earth's crust to thicken and
crumple, resulting in the
formation of massive
mountain ranges like the
Himalayas.
Himalayas

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Convergent Boundaries
Plate Boundaries

 Transform – Tectonic plates slide sideways.

Plate Boundaries

 A transform plate boundary is where two tectonic plates slide

horizontally past each other in opposite directions, without
creating or destroying crustal material.

 These boundaries, also known as strike-slip faults, generate

shallow, often powerful earthquakes due to the buildup and
release of stress as the plates grind together.

 Examples include the San Andreas Fault in California

Transform Boundaries

 Lithosphere slides past; not created or destroyed.

 Many transforms offset spreading ridge segments.
 Some transforms cut through continental crust.

 Characterized by…
 Earthquakes.
 Absence of volcanism.
 Transform Boundaries

 The MOR axis is offset by transform faults.

 Offset of linear MOR is geometric necessity on a sphere.
 Transforms bear strong evidence of sea-floor spreading.
Abundant earthquakes common between ridge
segments.
Earthquakes vanish past ridge segment overlaps.
Transform Boundaries

 Continental transforms – Chop continental crust.

 Example: The San Andreas Fault.
Session 3
Hot Spots

 Volcanic plumes independent of tectonic plates.

 Mafic magmas derived from the lower mantle.
Hot Spots

Hot spots are special locations on Earth’s surface where volcanic activity
occurs due to plumes of hot mantle material rising from deep within the Earth
(possibly near the core–mantle boundary).
Unlike most volcanoes, which form at plate boundaries, hot spots can occur
in the middle of tectonic plates.
 Hot Spots

 Mantle Plumes: Hot upwellings of

rock that melt as they approach the
surface, creating magma.
 Stationary Source: The hot spot
remains fixed while tectonic plates
move over it.
 Chains of Volcanoes: As the plate
moves, new volcanoes form above
the hot spot, creating linear volcanic
chains.
 Basaltic Magma: Most hot spots
produce basaltic lava, though some
(like Yellowstone) produce rhyolitic
and explosive volcanism.
 Hot Spots

 Hawaii (Pacific Plate) –

Produces the Hawaiian island
chain. The Big Island is
currently over the hot spot,
while older islands (Maui,
Oahu, Kauai) formed as the
plate moved northwest.
 Iceland – A hot spot located on
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, causing
intense volcanic activity.
Hot Spots

 Geological Importance:
1. Track Plate Movements –
Hot spot volcanic chains act
like a “tape recorder” of plate
motion.
2. Provide Heat & Magma –
Drive volcanism independent
of plate boundaries.
3. Explain Intraplate
Volcanoes – Why volcanoes
exist far from subduction
zones or ridges.
Plate Tectonics and People

Natural hazards.
 Earthquakes.
 Volcanic eruptions.
Most of the world's active
above-sea volcanoes are
located near convergent plate
boundaries where subduction
is occurring.
 Tsunamis
Major earthquakes occurring
along subduction zones are
especially hazardous, because
they can trigger tsunamis.
 Plate Tectonics and People

 Natural resources.
 Fertile soils.
The physical breakdown and chemical weathering of volcanic
rocks have formed some of the most fertile soils on Earth.
 Plate Tectonics and People

 Natural resources.
 Ore deposits.
Most of the metallic minerals mined in the
world, such as copper, gold, silver, lead,
and zinc, are associated with magmas
found deep within the roots of extinct
volcanoes located above subduction
zones.
The active volcanic vents along the
spreading mid-ocean ridges create ideal
environments for the circulation of fluids
rich in minerals and for ore deposition.
Plate Tectonics and People

 Natural resources.
 Fossil fuels.
Oil and natural gas are the products
of the deep burial and decomposition
of accumulated organic material in
geologic basins that flank mountain
ranges formed by plate-tectonic
processes.
Heat and pressure at depth transform
the decomposed organic material
into tiny pockets of gas and liquid
petroleum.
 Plate Tectonics and People

 Natural resources.
 Geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy can be harnessed from the Earth's natural
heat associated with active volcanoes or geologically young
inactive volcanoes still giving off heat at depth.