Matrices — Complete Study Notes 1
MATRICES
Complete Study Notes — Conceptual Theory & Problem Solving
1 Matrix Definitions & Order
A matrix is a rectangular array of real or complex values with m rows and n columns.
Order = m × n, Total elements = m · n
Notation: use [ ], { }, or ( ) — NEVER | | (reserved for determinants).
Counting Orders
Q: A matrix has 6 elements. Find all possible orders.
1×6, 6 × 1, 2 × 3, 3×2
Combinatorial Count
Q: How many 3 × 3 matrices can be formed using only elements from {0, 1}?
9 positions, each with 2 choices:
29 = 512
2 Types of Matrices
Square Matrix: m = n. Contains a principal diagonal (a11 , a22 , . . .).
Diagonal Matrix: All non-diagonal elements = 0.
Scalar Matrix: Diagonal matrix where all principal diagonal elements are identical.
Identity Matrix I: Scalar matrix with every diagonal element = 1; AI = IA = A.
Null Matrix O: All entries = 0; additive identity: A + O = A.
Upper Triangular: All elements below the principal diagonal = 0.
Lower Triangular: All elements above the principal diagonal = 0.
Nilpotent Matrix: Ak = O for some positive integer k.
3 Construction via Formula aij
aij denotes the element at row i, column j.
Q: Construct a 2 × 2 matrix where aij = 2i − 3j 2 .
Conceptual Theory & Problem Solving
Matrices — Complete Study Notes 2
a11 = 2(1) − 3(1)2 = 2 − 3 = −1
a12 = 2(1) − 3(2)2 = 2 − 12 = −10
a21 = 2(2) − 3(1)2 =4−3=1
a22 = 2(2) − 3(2)2 = 4 − 12 = −8
−1 −10
Result =
1 −8
4 Matrix Equality & Scalar Operations
Two matrices are equal iff every corresponding element is equal.
Scalar multiplication: a constant k multiplies every element.
2
x + 4x 0 21 0
Q: Find x and y if = .
0 y 2 + 6y 0 −9
(1) x2 + 4x = 21 ⇒ x2 + 4x − 21 = 0 ⇒ (x + 7)(x − 3) = 0
x = -7 or x=3
(2) y 2 + 6y = −9 ⇒ y 2 + 6y + 9 = 0 ⇒ (y + 3)2 = 0
y = -3
5 Transpose & Trigonometric Properties
The transpose AT is formed by switching rows ↔ columns.
Properties:
(AT )T = A
(A ± B)T = AT ± B T
(AB)T = B T AT (Reversal Law)
cos θ − sin θ
Q: Find θ if A + AT = I for A = .
sin θ cos θ
T cos θ sin θ
A =
− sin θ cos θ
2 cos θ
T 0 1 0
A+A = =
0 2 cos θ 0 1
1
⇒ 2 cos θ = 1 ⇒ cos θ =
2
π
◦
θ = 60
3
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Matrices — Complete Study Notes 3
6 Symmetric & Skew-Symmetric Matrices
Symmetric: A = AT ⇔ aij = aji
Skew-Symmetric: A = −AT ⇔ aij = −aji (diagonal must be zero)
Splitting Theorem
Any square matrix A can be decomposed as:
1 1
A = (A + AT ) + (A − AT )
2
| {z } 2
| {z }
Symmetric part Skew-Symmetric part
3 −1 5
Q: Express A = 2 0 6 as sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric parts.
4 7 −8
Symmetric part:
1 9
6 1 9 3
1 1 2 2
X = (A + AT ) = 1 0 13 = 12 0 13
2
2 2 9 13
9 13 −16 2 2
−8
Skew-Symmetric part:
0 − 32 12
0 −3 1
1 1
Y = (A − AT ) = 3 0 −1 = 32 0 − 12
2 2
−1 1 0 − 21 12 0
7 Matrix Multiplication
AB is defined only when columns of A = rows of B.
If A is m × n and B is n × q, then AB is m × q.
Generally AB ̸= BA (non-commutative)
2 3 4 0
Q: Find AB where A = and B = .
1 4 5 2
R1 × C1 : (2)(4) + (3)(5) = 8 + 15 = 23
R1 × C2 : (2)(0) + (3)(2) = 0 + 6 = 6
R2 × C1 : (1)(4) + (4)(5) = 4 + 20 = 24
R2 × C2 : (1)(0) + (4)(2) = 0 + 8 = 8
23 6
AB =
24 8
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Matrices — Complete Study Notes 4
8 Matrix Polynomials & Higher Powers
3 1
Q: If A = , prove A2 − 5A + 7I = O and find A3 .
−1 2
From the polynomial: A2 = 5A − 7I
A3 = A · A2 = A(5A − 7I)
= 5A2 − 7A
= 5(5A − 7I) − 7A (substitute A2 again)
= 25A − 35I − 7A
A3 = 18A − 35I
Trigonometric Power Pattern
cos θ sin θ n cos nθ sin nθ
If A = , then A =
− sin θ cos θ − sin nθ cos nθ
9 Determinants, Minors & Co-factors
2×2 : |A| = ad − bc
3 × 3: expand along the row or column with the most zeros.
Minor Mij = det of sub-matrix after deleting row i and column j
Co-factor Cij = (−1)i+j Mij
+ − +
Sign pattern: − + −
+ − +
x 4
Q: Find x if A = is singular.
5 x
|A| = x2 − 20 = 0
√
x = ± 20
10 Adjoints & Inverses
Adjoint adj A: Transpose of the co-factor matrix.
2 × 2 shortcut: Swap principal diagonal; negate the secondary diagonal.
1
Inverse A−1 : A−1 = adj A (exists only if |A| =
̸ 0).
|A|
Singular matrix: |A| = 0 ⇒ inverse does not exist.
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Matrices — Complete Study Notes 5
Key property: | adj A | = |A| n−1
Inverse via Polynomial
If A2 − 4A + 7I = O, pre-multiply by A−1 :
A − 4I + 7A−1 = O
1
A−1 = (4I − A)
7
11 Solving Systems of Equations P X = Q
Solution: X = P −1 Q. Three cases depending on |P |:
Case 1 — Unique Solution: |P | =
̸ 0
Case 2 — No Solution: |P | = 0 and (adj P ) Q ̸= O
Case 3 — Infinite Solutions: |P | = 0 and (adj P ) Q = O
Q: Solve 6x + 4y = 2 and 9x + 6y = 3.
|P | = (6)(6) − (9)(4) = 36 − 36 = 0
6 −4 2 0
(adj P ) Q = = ⇒ Infinite solutions
−9 6 3 0
Set y = k:
6x + 4k = 2 ⇒ 6x = 2 − 4k
1 − 2k
x= , y=k
3
1 − 2k
Verification: 9 + 6k = 3 − 6k + 6k = 3 ✓
3
12 Homogeneous Systems P X = O
Trivial solution (x = y = z = 0): Occurs when |P | =
̸ 0.
Non-trivial (infinite) solutions: Occurs when |P | = 0.
Assertion–Reason tip: In P X = O, “unique solution” specifically means the trivial zero
solution.
3 −2 5
Q: Find λ if λ 6 −8 X = O has a trivial solution.
4 −3 10
For a trivial solution, |P | =
̸ 0. Computing the determinant:
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Matrices — Complete Study Notes 6
|P | = 5λ + 46 ̸= 0
46
λ ̸= −
5
End of Notes
Conceptual Theory & Problem Solving