Module IV: Introduction to Electromagnetism
Magnetic Circuits, B-H curve, Permeability, Reluctance, Solution of simple
magnetic circuits, Hysteresis and Eddy current loss. Methods of preventing
such losses. Solenoids and field coils. Application of solenoids in different
circuits in Automobiles and in an electric circuit.
By
Dr. Aurobinda Bag
Introduction to Electromagnetism
• Magnetic lines of force form closed loops around and through the
magnetic material.
• The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit
just as the closed path followed by current in an electric circuit.
• Many electrical devices (generator, motor, transformer) depend upon
magnetism for their operation.
• Therefore, such devices have magnetic circuits i.e. closed flux paths.
• In order that these devices function efficiently, their magnetic circuits
must be properly designed to obtain the required magnetic conditions.
Introduction to Electromagnetism
Magnetic Circuits:
• The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
• In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves the N-pole, passes through
the entire circuit, and returns to the starting point.
• A magnetic circuit usually consists of materials having high permeability
e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt.
• It is because these materials offer very small opposition to the ‘flow’ of
magnetic flux.
• The most usual way of producing magnetic flux is by passing electric
current through a wire of number of turns wound over a magnetic material.
Contd.
• Consider a coil of N turns wound on an iron core as shown in Fig.
• When current I is passed through the coil, magnetic flux φ is set up in
the core.
• The flux follows the closed path ABCDA and hence ABCDA is the
magnetic circuit.
Contd.
(i)
• The amount of magnetic flux set up in the core depends upon
current (I) and number of turns (N).
• If we increase the current or number of turns, the amount of
magnetic flux also increases and vice-versa.
• The product N*I is called the magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) and
determines the amount of flux set up in the magnetic circuit.
• M.M.F. = N I ampere-turns (AT)
• It can just be compared to electromotive force (e.m.f.) which sends
current in an electric circuit.
Contd.
(ii)
• The opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to the magnetic flux
is called reluctance.
• It depends upon length of magnetic circuit (i.e. length ABCDA in
this case), area of X-section of the circuit and the nature of material
that makes up the magnetic circuit.
Contd.
Analysis of Magnetic Circuit:
• Consider the magnetic circuit shown in Fig.
• Suppose the mean length of the magnetic circuit (i.e. length ABCDA)
is l metres, cross-sectional area of the core is ‘a’m 2 and relative
permeability of core material is r .
• When current I is passed through the coil, it will set up flux φ which is
flowing in the magnetic circuit.
Magnetic Field:
• The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is
called a magnetic field.
Magnetic Flux:
• The number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field determines
the value of magnetic flux.
• The more the magnetic lines of force, the greater the magnetic flux
and the stronger the magnetic field.
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H):
• Magnetic intensity (or field strength) at a point in a magnetic field is
the force acting on a unit N-pole (i.e., N-pole of 1 Wb) placed at that
point.
Contd.
Permeability:
• Permeability of a material is its conductivity for magnetic flux.
• The greater the permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for
magnetic flux and vice-versa.
• Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of magnetic flux.
• The absolute (or actual) permeability µ0 (Greek letter “mu”) of air or
vacuum is 4π × 10−7 H/m.
• The absolute (or actual) permeability µ of magnetic materials is much
greater than µ0 .
• The ratio µ/ µris called the relative permeability of the material and is
denoted by µr .
Contd.
Contd.
Important Terms:
Problem:
An iron ring has a cross-sectional area of 400 mm2 and a mean diameter
of 25 cm. It is wound with 500 turns. If the value of relative
permeability is 250, find the total flux set up in the ring. The coil
resistance is 474 Ω and the supply voltage is 240 V.
Problem:
An iron ring of cross sectional area 6 cm2 is wound with a wire of 100
turns and has a saw cut of 2 mm. Calculate the magnetising current
required to produce a flux of 0·1 mWb if mean length of magnetic path
is 30 cm and relative permeability of iron is 470.
Problem:
A circular iron ring has a mean circumference of 1·5 m and a cross-
sectional area of 0·01 m2. A saw-cut of 4 mm wide is made in the ring.
Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0·8
mWb in the air gap if the ring is wound with a coil of 175 turns. Assume
relative permeability of iron as 400 and leakage factor 1·25.
B-H Curve:
The B-H curve (or magnetisation curve) indicates the manner in which
the flux density (B) varies with the magnetising force (H).
• indicates the
(ii) For magnetic material:
• For magnetic materials (e.g. iron, steel etc.), the relation between B
and H is given by ;
• Fig below shows how relative permeabilityr of a magnetic material
(cast steel) varies with flux density
• Unfortunately, µr is not constant but varies with the flux density.
• Consequently, the B-H curve of a magnetic material is not linear.
• The non-linearity of the curve indicates that relative permeability r
(=B/µ0H) of a material is not constant but depends upon the flux
density.
• It is slightly concave up for ‘low’ flux densities (portion OA) and
exhibits a straight-line character (portion AB) for ‘medium’ flux
densities.
• In the portion AB of the curve, the of the
r material is almost constant.
• For higher flux ‘densities’, the curve concaves down (called the knee
of the curve).
• After knee of the curve, any further increase in H does not increase B.
• Afterwards, the curve is almost flat and the material is said to be
saturated.
Hysteresis Loss:
• When a magnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization (i.e.
it is magnetized first in one direction and then in the other), an energy
loss takes place due to this magnetic reversal.
• Energy is thus expended in the material in overcoming this magnetic
reversal.
• This loss is in the form of heat and is called hysteresis loss.
• Hysteresis loss is present in all those electrical machines whose iron
parts are subjected to cycles of magnetization.
• The obvious effect of hysteresis loss is the rise of temperature of the
machine.
• Transformers and most electric motors operate on alternating
current.
• In such devices, the flux in the iron changes continuously, both in
value and direction.
• Hence hysteresis loss occurs in such machines.
• Hysteresis loss also occurs when an iron part rotates in a constant
magnetic field e.g. dc machines.
• If f is the frequency of magnetization and V is the volume of the
magnetic material in m3, then,
• Where, η is a proportionality constant called as hysteresis coefficient.
• Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material i.e. the smaller
the value of hysteresis coefficient of a material, the lesser is the
hysteresis loss.
• The hysteresis loss can be reduced by using silicon steel to make the
core of electric machines.
Eddy Current Loss
• When a magnetic material is subjected to a changing magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in the material according to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
• Since the material is conducting, the induced voltage circulates
currents within the body of the magnetic material.
• These circulating currents are known as eddy currents.
• These eddy currents causesI2 R loss in the material, known as eddy
current loss.
The eddy current loss also results in the increase in temperature of the
material.
The eddy current loss can be reduced as follows:
•By using thin sheets, called laminations which are insulated from
each other by a thin coating of varnish, instead of using a solid block
of magnetic material.
•Using a magnetic material of high resistivity (e.g. silicon steel).
Solenoid:
• A long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops is called a
solenoid.
• The word solenoid comes from Greek word meaning ‘tube-like’.
• By a long solenoid we mean that length of the solenoid is very large as
compared to its diameter.
• When current is passed through the coil of air-cored solenoid,
magnetic field is set up as shown in Fig.
• The path of the magnetic flux is made up of two components :
(i) length l1 of the path within the coil
(ii) length l2 of the path outside the coil.
• The total m.m.f. required for the solenoid
1l is the sum of m.m.f.s required for
these two paths i.e. Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for path l1 + m.m.f. for path l2
Field Coil:
• A field coil is an electromagnet used to generate a magnetic field in an
electro-magnetic machine, typically a rotating electrical machine such as
a motor or generator.
• It consists of a coil of wire through which a current flows.
Applications for Solenoids:
• Solenoids vary in size and power, making them suitable for countless
applications.
• Powerful solenoids consist of many coils, create strong magnetic
fields, and can be used to power large machinery.
• A smaller, less powerful solenoid can be used for smaller functions
like ringing a doorbell.
Some of the more common applications for solenoids include:
• Mechanical or fluid control valves
• Starting a car
• Ringing a doorbell
• Door locking mechanisms etc.