Module I: Basic Concepts and Basic Laws

The essence of Electricity, Electric Field; Electric Current, Potential and

Potential Difference, E.M.F., Electric Power, Ohm’s Law, Basic Circuit
Components, Ideal and Practical Sources, Source Conversion,
Renewable and Non-renewable energy sources
By
Dr. Aurobinda Bag,
Assistant Professor
EEE Department
CUTM PKD
Electricity
Electric Circuit:
• It is a closed path of electrical components through which electric
current flows.
• The various electrical components are called elements.
• These are resistor, capacitor, inductor, electric wire, battery, fuse,
circuit breaker etc.
Electricity
• The flow of charges in a conductor is defined as electricity.
• The flow of free electrons is called flow of electric current.
Free electrons:
❖Those valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the
nucleus of an atom are called free electrons.
Valence electrons:
❖The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence
electrons.
Contd.
Atomic Structure:
• Any material build up of number of atoms.
• The atom consists of n number of subatomic particles such as electron,
proton and neutron.
• Proton and neutron make up the nucleus of atom, which is surrounded
by electrons belonging to that atom.
• Neutral atoms have equal number of protons and electrons.
Contd.
Conductor: The substance which has large number of free electrons at
room temperature is called a conductor of electricity.
Ex: gold, silver, copper
Insulator: A substance which has very few free electrons is called an
insulator of electricity.
• If a voltage is applied across the insulator, no current flows through it.
Ex: glass, rubber, plastic, wood, air etc.
Contd.
Semiconductor: There is a third class of substance is called semiconductors.
• Semiconductor is neither a conductor nor a insulator.
• Semiconductors have very few free electrons.
• In room temperature it behaves like a insulator.
Ex: Silicon, Germanium etc.
Resistivity(ρ):
• It is a measure of resisting power of a specified material to the flow of an
electric current.
• It is denoted by symbol ρ and its unit is Ωcm
Contd.
• Conductors have electrical resistivity on the order of 10-8 to 10-4 Ωcm.
• Insulators have electrical resistivity on the order of 108 to 1018 Ωcm.

Categories of materials according to their electrical resistivity

Contd.
• Semiconductors have an electrical resistivity value between those of
conductors and insulators: 10-4 to 108 Ωcm.
Resistance:
• Electrical resistance (R) is the resistance to a flow of electric current
through a material.
• Its unit is ohm(Ω).
• The electrical resistance of a material is proportional to its length (l)
and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area (A).
Contd.
• Each material has also an essential (natural) property called electrical
resistivity (ρ).
• Electrical resistance (R) is expressed as follows as a function
of ρ, I and A.

• The reciprocal of resistance (R) is called conductance (G), and its unit
is Ohm-1 (ʊ).
Problem.1 A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-
sectional area of 0.8 mm2 . The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the
resistivity of copper is 0.02 micro Ω m. Calculate the resistance of the
coil.
Electricity
• Electricity is a form of energy that depends on the existence of electric
charge.
• Electric charge may be classified as
(a) Positively Charged
(b) Negatively Charged
(c) Neutral
• Neutral means a composition of equal amount of positive and negative
charges.
• Addition of more electrons may make a neutral negatively charged, whereas
withdrawal of electrons from a neutral particle may result in a positively
charged.
Contd.

• Electricity is the flow of electrons through a conductor, usually in the

form of a wire and this flow is called an electric current.
• The conventional direction of current is taken from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal of the cell.
• The flow of electrons is from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal of the cell.
Electric Charge
• Electric charge comes in two main types: positive and negative
charges.
• Positive charges are associated with protons, which are subatomic
particles residing in the nucleus of an atom.
• They are represented by the symbol “+”.
• Negative charges are linked to electrons and are denoted by the
symbol “-”.
• The unit of charge is coulomb (c).
Fundamental Charge
• There are three fundamental charge particles present in every matter or
substance, namely proton, electron and neutron.

• These particles possess electric charge and can contribute to electricity.

❖Proton is considered to have positive charge (qp),

❖electron is considered to have negative charge (qe),
❖and neutron is considered as neutral (no net charge).

Qe = e = −1.607 10−19 C and Q p = −e = +1.607  10−19 C

Net Charge
• Any particle may acquire electric charge in the process of addition or
removal of electrons.
• The total charge acquired in this process is called the net charge (Q).
• Addition of ‘n’ electrons to a neutral particle develops a net charge of
Q = n×e,
• Removal of ‘n’ electrons from a neutral particle develops a net charge
of Q = -n×e.
Electric Current
• It is defined as the flow of electric charge with respect to time.
• It is given by Electric Charge, I=dQ/dt ampere.
• Its unit is: C/sec or A.
Contd.
• Current flows due to the flow of electrons only.
• The actual direction of current (i.e. flow of electrons) is from negative
terminal to the positive terminal through that part of the circuit
external to the cell.
Electric Potential
• It is defined as the amount of work to be done to move a unit positive
charge.
• The ability of a charged particle to do work is called electric potential.
Charged particles:
• Electron
• Proton
• Greater the capacity of charged particle to do work, the greater is its
electric potential.
Contd.
• Electric Potential=Work done/charge
• The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs.
• Therefore the unit of electric potential is joules/coulomb or volts.
• If w=1joules, q=1coulomb, then electrical potential=1 volt.
Potential Difference
• The difference in potential of two charged bodies is called potential
difference.
• If two bodies have different electric potentials, a potential difference
exists between the bodies.
• Consider two bodies A and B having electrical potentials of 5 volts and
3 volts respectively.
• Clearly A body have higher potential than body B.
• If two bodies are joined through a conductor, then electrons will flow
from B to A and electricity flows from A to B.
Electromotive Force
• The e.m.f. of a device (battery), is a measure of the energy that the
battery supplies per unit charge.
• Thus if a battery supplies 4 joules of energy per unit charge, we say
that it has an e.m.f. of 4 volts.
Electric Power
• The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called its
electric power
• Electric power = Work done in electric circuit/Time
• When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current (i.e. electrons) to
flow through it.
• Clearly, work is being done in moving the electrons in the circuit.
• This work done in moving the electrons in a unit time is called the
electric power.
Contd.
• It can be expressed as P=dw/dt
• P=(dw/dq)×(dq/dt)=V×I=I×R×I=I2×R
• Unit of Power is Watt or kW.
Ohm’s Law
Statement:
• At a constant temperature, the potential Difference between any two
point in a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it.
•VαI
• V=RI
• Where R is the constant of proportionality, and known as resistance
between two terminal of conductor.
Contd.
Limitations:
• It is applicable for metallic conductor like copper, aluminium, steel
etc.
• It is not applicable for nonlinear elements like diode, transistor etc.
• It is applicable for constant temperature only.
Electrical Energy
• The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy.
• Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time=V×I×t=I × R × I × t=I2Rt
• Unit is Wh or kWh
Electric Field
• The electric field is representing the region around a charged object
where electric forces can influence other charged particles.
• It is denoted by ‘E’.
• The magnitude and direction of the electric field are expressed by
the value of E, called electric field strength or electric field intensity or
simply electric field.
• The strength of an electric field E may be defined as the electric
force F exerted per unit positive charge q.
• E = F/q.
Basic Electric Circuit Components
Electric Circuit:
• It is a closed path of electrical components through which electric
current flows.
• The various electrical components are called elements.
• These are resistor, capacitor, inductor, electric wire, battery, fuse,
circuit breaker etc.
Contd.
• The Electrical Circuit components can be divided in two types.
1. Active Elements
2. Passive Elements
Active Elements:
The type of electrical circuits elements that deliver electrical energy are
called active elements.
Example: Voltage Source, Current Source etc.
Contd.
Passive Elements:
• The type of circuit element that absorb electrical energy but cannot
supply electrical energy are called passive elements.
Example: resistance, inductance, capacitance etc.
Contd.
Further the electrical circuit elements are divided into
(a) Unilateral elements
(b) Bilateral elements
Unilateral elements:
• It allows flow of current in one direction only.
Ex. Diode, Semiconductor Devices
Bilateral Elements:
• It allows flow of current in both directions.
Ex. Resistance, inductance, capacitance.
Contd.
Another division of electrical elements are
(i) Linear Elements
(ii) Nonlinear Elements
Linear Elements:
• The circuit element is said to be linear, if there is a linear relationship
between voltage and current through it.
Ex. Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance.
Nonlinear Elements:
• The circuit element is said to be nonlinear, if the voltage and current
relationship through it is nonlinear.
Ex. Diode, transistor etc.
Electrical Sources
• Electrical sources are divided into two types.
(i) Ideal source
(ii) Practical source
(i) Ideal source: Ideal sources can be divided into two types.
(a) Ideal Voltage source
(b) Ideal Current source
(ii) Practical source: Practical sources can be divided into two types.
(c) Practical Voltage source
(d) Practical Current source
Contd.
(a) Ideal Voltage source:
• It is a constant voltage source that maintains a constant terminal
voltage, irrespective of how much current is drawn from it.
• An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.
• So, it would provide constant terminal voltage regardless of the value
of load connected across its terminals.
=0
Contd.
• For example, an ideal 12V source would maintain 12V across its
terminals
• when a 1 MΩ resistor is connected (so I = 12 V/1 MΩ = 12µA)
• when a 1 kΩ resistor is connected ( I = 12 mA)
• when a 1 Ω resistor is connected (I = 12A)
Contd.
(b) Ideal Current Source:
• It is a constant current source which will supply the same current to
any load resistance connected across its terminals.
• An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.
• So, it supplies the same current to any resistance connected across its
terminals.
• Since an ideal current source supplies the same current regardless of
the value of resistance connected across its terminals, the terminal
voltage V of the current source depends on the value of load
resistance.
Contd.
• If a 2 A current source has 10 Ω across its terminals, then terminal
voltage of the source is V = 2 A × 10 Ω = 20 volts.
• If load resistance is changed to 100 Ω, then terminal voltage of the
current source becomes V = 2 A × 100 Ω = 200 volts.
Contd.
(c) Practical Voltage Source:
• A practical voltage source has low but finite internal resistance.
• So, its terminal voltage to decrease when load current is increased and
vice-versa.
• As Rint becomes smaller, the practical voltage source more closely
approaches the ideal voltage source.
Contd.
(d) Practical Current Source:
A practical current source has high but finite internal resistance (Rint).
• So, the load current (IL) will change as the value of load resistance
(RL) changes.
• As Rint of practical current source becomes greater, the current source
more closely approaches the ideal current source.
Source Conversion
• A practical voltage source can be converted to an equivalent practical
current source and vice-versa.
(i) Voltage to current source conversion:
• It is known that a practical voltage source can be represented by a
constant voltage E in series with its internal resistance Rint .
Contd.
• Load current IL is given by

= Current which would flow in a

short circuit across the output
terminals of voltage source.
Contd.
• It is observed that, the voltage source appears as a current source of
current IS which is dividing between the internal resistance Rint and
load resistance RL connected in parallel.
• Thus a practical voltage source of constant voltage E and internal
resistance Rint is equivalent to a current source of current IS = E/ Rint
and Rint in parallel with current source.
• The internal resistance of the equivalent current source has the same
value as the internal resistance of the original voltage source but is in
parallel with current source.
Contd.
(ii) Current to voltage source conversion.

• Fig. shows below a practical current source and its equivalent voltage
source.
Contd.
• The series resistance Rint of the voltage source has the same value as
the parallel resistance Rint of the original current source.
• The value of voltage of the equivalent voltage source is E = IS×Rint
where IS is the magnitude of current of the current source.
Problem: Find the current in the 3 kΩ resistor by converting the current
source to a voltage source.
• The equivalent voltage is E = 15 mA × 6 kΩ = 90 V

• The current in 3 kΩ resistor is

Problem: Find the current in 6 kΩ resistor by converting the current
source to a voltage source.
Solution:
• E = 15 mA × 3 kΩ = 45 V
• Polarity of the equivalent voltage source is such that it produces
current in the same direction as the original current source.
• The current in 6 kΩ is
Problem: Find the equivalent voltage source for the current source
shown below.
• The open-circuit voltage across terminals A and B is VOC = drop
across R = 5 × 2 = 10 V
• Hence, voltage source has a voltage of 10 V and the same resistance of
2 Ω through connected in series.
Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance
• Considering a conductor material having resistance R0 at 0°C and Rt at
t°C.
• In t°C, the increase in resistance (i.e. (Rt − R0))
(i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance i.e. (Rt − R0) ∝ R0
(ii) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature i.e. (Rt − R0)∝ t
• Combining the first two, we get, Rt − R0 ∝ R0t or Rt − R0 = α0 R0 t
• Where α0 is a constant and is called temperature co-efficient of
resistance at 0°C.
• Rearranging eq. above, we get, Rt = R0(1+α0t)
• Further, the temperature coefficient of resistance,
Problem: A coil has a resistance of 18 Ω when its mean temperature is
20°C and of 20 Ω when its mean temperature is 50°C. Find its mean
temperature rise when its resistance is 21 Ω and the surrounding
temperature is 15°C.
• Let R0 be the resistance of the coil at 0°C and a0 be its temperature
coefficient of resistance at 0°C. Then,

• If t°C is the temperature of the coil when its resistance is 21W, then,
Problem: The resistance of the field coils of a dynamo is 173 Ω at 16°C.
After working for 6 hours on full-load, the resistance of the coils
increases to 212 Ω. Calculate (i) the temperature of the coils (ii) mean
rise of temperature of the coils. Assume temperature co-efficient of
resistance of copper is 0.00426/°C at 0°C.
Solution:
(i) Let t o C be the final temperature

(ii) Rise in temperature = t − 16 = 72.5 − 16 = 56.5°C

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
Sources
Renewable Energy Sources:

• Renewable energy is defined as energy produced from natural

resources.
• The resources which are available in the earth in unlimited supply
such as sunlight , air , water , land etc. are known as renewable
resources.
Contd.
Solar energy:
It is derived from the Solar energy.
• Solar energy is captured and used to generate electricity via solar
panels is called Photovoltaic Panel.
• When sunlight falls on Photovoltaic (PV) cells it directly convert
sunlight into electricity.
Contd.
Wind energy:
• Wind energy can be used to get mechanical power to electric
generators with turbines, allowing them to function as prime mover.
• It is made up of a rotor that is linked to a generator.
• Wind energy is used to generate electricity.
• A windmill is a structure with blades that convert wind energy into
rotational energy.
• It generates electricity using renewable resources.
Contd.
Geothermal energy:
• It is energy derived from thermal energy stored in the earth.
• This thermal energy is used to capture and then transformed or used by
industries for water heating.
Hydropower:
• Hydropower is the energy produced by the use of water.
• It is created by utilizing tides, which is recognized as tidal energy.
• Ocean surface vibrations are also used to generate electricity, which is
known as wave energy.
Contd.
Bioenergy:
• Bioenergy is created from biomass, which is animal and plant waste.
• This biomass contains chemical energy and, when burned, provides
bioenergy.
• The heat produced is being used to generate electricity and power
generators.
Contd.
Non-renewable Sources:
Fossil fuel:
• Fossil fuels are achieved by the dead remains of plants and animals.
• Examples: natural gas, Coal, Oil, etc.
Nuclear fuel:
• Uranium is a very general example of nuclear fuel.
•Nuclear power delivers 6 % of total energy and 13-14 % of world electricity.
Contd.
The non-renewable energy resources are:
• Coal
• Nuclear
• Oil
• Natural gases