Introduction – Self-Report Methods

Self-report methods involve asking participants to provide information about

their own thoughts, feelings, attitudes, experiences, or behaviour.

Instead of observing behaviour directly, researchers ask people to describe

their experiences themselves.

Examples of self-report methods

• Interviews

• Questionnaires

• Surveys

• Psychological scales measuring attitudes or personality

Why psychologists use self-report

Some psychological phenomena cannot be directly observed.

Examples:

• Feelings of anxiety

• Attitudes toward social groups

• Personal motivations

• Life experiences

For instance, a psychologist studying depression in college students may ask

participants about:

• their mood

• sleep patterns

• feelings of hopelessness

Only the participant can accurately describe these experiences.

Limitations

People may:
 • misunderstand questions

• give socially desirable responses

• forget details

• misrepresent their experiences

Despite these limitations, self-report data can generate rich insights and guide
future research.

Structured Interviews

In a structured interview, every participant is asked exactly the same questions

in the same order.

Key characteristics

• Questions are pre-written

• Interviewer follows a strict script

• Responses may be closed-ended

• Interviewer has little exibility

Purpose

Structured interviews aim to produce consistent and comparable data across

participants.

Example in psychological research

A clinical researcher studying symptoms of anxiety disorder may ask every

participant:

1. “How often do you feel nervous?”

2. “Do you experience panic attacks?”

3. “Do you avoid social situations?”

Each participant receives identical questions, making results easier to compare.

Advantages
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 • Easy data comparison and analysis

• Reduced interviewer bias

• High reliability

• Suitable for large samples

Disadvantages

• Responses may be super cial

• Cannot explore unexpected ideas

• Respondents cannot explain complex experiences fully

Example:
A participant who says “yes” to feeling anxious may have many personal
reasons, but the structured format prevents deeper exploration.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Loose vs Structured Interviews

Loose (informal or semi-structured) interviews

Caption
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 Example:
A researcher studying coping with grief would bene t more from a semi-
structured interview, because emotional experiences require detailed
narratives.

But if the aim is measuring prevalence of depression symptoms, structured

interviews may be more suitable.

Effects of Interpersonal Variables in Interviews

The interview situation involves two people interacting, and this interaction can
in uence the responses.

Factors affecting interview responses include:

• gender

• ethnicity

• social class

• personality

• expectations of the researcher

These variables can affect how comfortable participants feel and how
honestly they respond.

Gender

Research shows that gender differences between interviewer and participant

can affect responses.

Example:
Studies found that:

• Men may disclose more to female interviewers

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 • Women may disclose more to male interviewers

Another nding:
Older females reported fewer mental health problems to male interviewers.

Psychological interpretation

Participants may modify responses because of:

• social norms

• gender expectations

• comfort level with interviewer

Example:
A male participant may hesitate to admit fear or emotional vulnerability when
interviewed by another male.

Ethnicity

Ethnic differences between interviewer and participant can in uence behaviour.

Example:
White interviewers interviewing Black job applicants showed low immediacy
behaviour (less warmth, less eye contact).

Consequences:

• participants may feel uncomfortable

• responses may become shorter or less open

Psychological implication

Interviewer bias can unintentionally affect data validity.

Formal Role

Participants may see the interviewer as an authority gure.

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Example:
In educational research, students may tell a professor what they think the
professor wants to hear rather than their real opinion.

This is known as demand characteristics.

Personal Qualities and the Halo/Horn Effect

The halo effect occurs when one positive trait in uences the overall impression
of a person.

Example:
If the interviewer appears friendly and intelligent, participants may assume they
are trustworthy.

The horn effect is the opposite — a negative trait in uences the whole
impression.

Example:
If the interviewer seems rude or dismissive, participants may become defensive.

Social Desirability

Participants often give answers that make them look socially acceptable.

Example:
If asked:

“Do you treat people from all backgrounds equally?”

Most participants will answer yes, even if their behaviour does not always re ect
this.

Social desirability bias is common when studying:

• prejudice

• sexuality

• illegal behaviour

• substance use
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Facilitative Cues

Interviewers must avoid giving cues that suggest approval or disapproval.

Example:
Nodding strongly or saying “Good answer!” may encourage participants to
respond in a certain way.

Participants may then adjust answers to gain approval.

Types of Interview

Interviews vary in how structured they are.

The chapter identi es six main types.

1. Non-Directive Interview

In this type, the interviewer provides minimal direction.

The participant speaks freely while the interviewer:

• listens

• provides encouragement

• avoids judging

Example

A therapist may ask:

“Tell me about what has been troubling you recently.”

The client then leads the conversation.

Purpose

Often used in psychotherapy or counselling research.

2. Informal Interview
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The informal interview is still directed toward research but remains exible and
conversational.

The interviewer:

• has general topics

• asks questions naturally

• follows participant responses

Example

A researcher studying student stress might ask:

“Can you tell me about a time during university when you felt particularly
overwhelmed?”

The participant can elaborate freely.

This method often produces unexpected and valuable insights.

3. Semi-Structured Interview

This method balances structure and exibility.

The interviewer prepares:

• key questions

• main topics

However, follow-up questions may be added depending on responses.

Advantages

• comparable responses across participants

• opportunity to explore deeper meanings

Example

Research on coping strategies among cancer patients might include questions

like:
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 • “How did you feel when you rst received the diagnosis?”

• “What strategies helped you cope with treatment?”

Follow-up questions may probe emotions and experiences further.

4. Structured but Open-Ended Interview

Questions are xed and asked in the same order, but participants respond in
their own words.

Example question:

“What do you think about physical punishment of children?”

Participants can give detailed responses.

This allows:

• qualitative insights

• standardised questioning

5. Fully Structured Interview

Here questions and responses are strictly prede ned.

Example:

“Do you approve of corporal punishment?”

Options:

• Yes

• No

• Unsure

Advantages

• ef cient

• easy statistical analysis

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 Limitations

Participants may struggle if their views do not t the options provided.

6. The Clinical Method (Clinical Interview)

Developed by Jean Piaget, this method studies children’s thinking.

Characteristics:

• exible questioning

• interviewer probes reasoning

• follow-up questions test understanding

Example with children:

Question:
“Why does the sun move across the sky?”

Follow-up questions explore the child’s reasoning.

This method helps researchers understand how children think, not just what
they answer.

Semi-Structured or Open Interviewing – Gathering Qualitative Data

Semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research.

Reasons:

• allow participants to express personal meanings

• produce detailed narratives

• capture lived experiences

Example research topics:

• trauma recovery

• identity development
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 • migration experiences

• coping with illness

These interviews produce rich qualitative data rather than numbers.

Principles of the Open Interview

Open interviewing requires careful preparation.

Key principles include:

1. Giving Information

Participants should be told:

• purpose of the research

• topics to be discussed

• how data will be used

This builds trust and cooperation.

2. Anonymity and Con dentiality

Researchers must ensure participants’ identities are protected.

Example:
When studying illegal drug use among students, anonymity encourages honest
responses.

Achieving and Maintaining Rapport

Rapport refers to a comfortable, trusting relationship between interviewer

and participant.

People reveal more personal information when they feel respected and
understood.

Language
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The interviewer should use language appropriate to the participant’s
background.

Example:
Avoid complex psychological terminology when interviewing adolescents.

Neutrality

Interviewers should avoid judging responses.

Example:
Instead of saying:
“That’s wrong.”

They might say:

“That’s interesting — could you tell me more?”

Listening Skills

Good interviewers demonstrate active listening.

Techniques include:

• nodding

• maintaining eye contact

• summarizing responses

• encouraging elaboration

Example prompts:

• “Could you explain that further?”

• “What happened next?”

Interest

Participants respond better when the interviewer shows genuine curiosity about
their experiences.
Non-Verbal Communication

Body language in uences comfort levels.

Important behaviours:

• relaxed posture

• attentive eye contact

• calm tone of voice

These behaviours encourage open communication.

Developing the Questions and Order

Good interview questions should:

• ask only necessary information

• be clear and understandable

• avoid leading responses

• avoid sensitive topics early in the interview

Prompts

Prompts encourage participants to elaborate.

Examples:

• “Could you tell me more about that?”

• “What happened after that?”

Prompts help obtain richer qualitative data.

Recording the Interview

Interviews may be recorded using:

1. Note Taking
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 Quick notes during the interview.

Limitations:

• distracts interviewer

• may miss details

2. Audio Recording

Common method using digital recorders.

Advantages:

• accurate data

• allows full transcription

Participants must give informed consent before recording.

3. Video Recording

Allows analysis of:

• facial expressions

• gestures

• interaction patterns

However, participants may feel self-conscious.

Summary

Interview methods are important tools in psychological research because they

allow researchers to collect detailed information directly from participants.
Different interview styles (structured, semi-structured, informal, and clinical) vary
in exibility and purpose. However, interpersonal factors such as gender,
ethnicity, interviewer behaviour, and social desirability can in uence responses.
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Effective interviewing requires careful question design, rapport building, ethical
considerations, and accurate recording of data.

1. What is Qualitative Interviewing?

Qualitative interviewing is a research method used to collect detailed verbal

data about people's experiences, beliefs, feelings, and interpretations of
events. Unlike structured surveys, qualitative interviews allow participants to
express their views in their own words, providing rich and nuanced
information.

Interviews are common in everyday life (e.g., job interviews, psychiatric

interviews, media interviews), but in research they are conducted systematically
and purposefully.

Key Characteristics

• Conducted through conversation between interviewer and participant

• Focus on understanding meanings and experiences

• Questions are usually open-ended

• Interviewers may adapt questions based on responses

• Participants can provide detailed narratives rather than short answers

Example (Psychology Research)

A researcher studying coping with chronic illness may interview patients about:

• How they rst reacted to diagnosis

• How illness changed their daily life

• Their emotional adjustment process

This allows researchers to understand subjective experiences, which may not

appear in standardized questionnaires.
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Structured vs Qualitative Interviews

Structured Interviews Qualitative Interviews

Fixed questions Flexible questions
Short responses Detailed narratives
Researcher controls
Participant has more freedom
interview
Data richer but harder to
Data easier to quantify
analyse
Similar to questionnaires Similar to guided conversations

In qualitative interviews, the interviewer plays an active role by probing

responses, clarifying meanings, and encouraging elaboration.

How to Conduct Qualitative Interviews

Conducting qualitative interviews requires careful planning, interpersonal

skills, and systematic procedures.

Researchers should understand:

• The research topic

• The purpose of the interview

• The type of participants needed

Interview Types

1. Face-to-Face Interviews

Most common form.

Advantages:

• Better rapport

• Ability to observe non-verbal cues

• Easier probing

2. Telephone Interviews
Useful when:

• Participants are geographically distant

• Sensitive topics require anonymity

Disadvantages:

• Lack of visual cues

• Harder to build rapport

3. Online Interviews

Examples:

• Email interviews

• Video interviews

Advantages:

• Convenience

• Lower cost

Disadvantages:

• Limited interaction

• Technical barriers

4. Preparatory Stage for the Qualitative Interview

Qualitative interviewing requires careful preparation before the interview

takes place.

Steps in the Qualitative Interview Process

According to the chapter, the process includes three phases:

1. Prior to the interview

2. During the interview

3. After the interview

 Howitt Interview Method

Step 1: Research Conceptualisation and Development

The researcher must develop a clear understanding of the research problem.

This involves:

• Reviewing previous research

• Identifying research questions

• De ning the purpose of the interview

Example:
A study on academic stress among college students might ask:

• What causes academic stress?

• How do students cope with it?

Step 2: Preparation of the Interview Guide

An interview guide is a exible outline of topics and questions to be discussed.

Features:

• Contains key themes

• Not necessarily asked in xed order

• Allows interviewer to adapt to responses

Example Interview Guide (Student Stress Study)

Topics:

• Academic expectations

• Time management

• Emotional reactions

• Coping strategies
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The guide ensures important topics are covered while maintaining exibility.

Step 3: Suitability of In-Depth Interviewing

Not all topics are suitable for qualitative interviews.

Good topics include:

• Personal experiences

• Attitudes and beliefs

• Emotional reactions

• Life histories

Example:
Studying grief experiences after losing a family member is appropriate for in-
depth interviews.

Step 4: Interview Training

Interviewers require training to develop skills such as:

• Listening carefully

• Encouraging participants to speak freely

• Avoiding leading questions

• Managing emotional situations

Training may involve practice interviews and feedback.

Step 5: Interview Comparison

Sometimes researchers conduct multiple interviews with the same participant.

Purpose:

• Track changes over time

• Clarify previous responses

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 • Explore emerging themes

Example:
A study on recovery from addiction may interview participants several times
over a year.

Step 6: Communication Between Interviewers

In team research projects, interviewers must communicate to ensure:

• Similar interview procedures

• Consistent coverage of topics

• Comparable data quality

Step 7: Sample Recruitment and Selection

Participants must be selected based on the research objectives.

Common recruitment strategies:

• Hospital patient lists

• Support groups

• Community organizations

• Newspaper advertisements

• Snowball sampling (participants refer others)

Example:
For research on chronic pain, researchers may recruit patients from a hospital
pain clinic.

Step 8: Participant Management

Researchers should maintain good relationships with participants by:

• Con rming interview appointments

• Sending reminders
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 • Providing clear information about the study

• Explaining ethical issues

This helps build trust and cooperation.

Step 9: Selecting the Interview Location

Possible locations include:

1. Participant’s home

2. Researcher’s of ce

3. Neutral location (e.g., meeting room)

Factors to consider:

• Privacy

• Comfort

• Safety

• Recording quality

5. The Qualitative Interview Stage

This is the actual data collection phase.

The interview usually consists of four parts:

1. Recording the Interview

Recording ensures accurate data collection.

Guidelines:

• Use high-quality audio recorders

• Test equipment beforehand

• Use external microphones if possible

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Video recording may be used but can make participants uncomfortable.

2. Orientation Stage of the Interview

At the beginning, the interviewer should:

• Introduce themselves

• Explain the research purpose

• Discuss con dentiality

• Obtain informed consent

• Allow participants to ask questions

This stage helps build rapport and trust.

3. What Qualitative Researchers Do During Interviews

Interviewers typically:

• Encourage detailed responses

• Ask follow-up questions

• Clarify meanings

• Observe emotional reactions

Good interviewers avoid:

• dominating the conversation

• interrupting participants

• imposing personal opinions

Silence can also be useful because it gives participants time to think and
elaborate.

4. Bringing the Interview to a Conclusion

Ending the interview involves:

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 • Allowing participants to add anything important

• Asking nal re ections

• Thanking participants

• Providing debrie ng information

Participants may also be given contact information for support services,

especially after discussing sensitive topics.

6. What Happens Following the Qualitative Interview?

After interviews, researchers must perform several tasks:

1. Support for Participants

Some interviews involve emotional topics (e.g., trauma, abuse). Researchers must
ensure participants receive appropriate support if distress occurs.

2. Data Protection and Management

Researchers must protect con dentiality by:

• Secure storage of recordings

• Anonymising transcripts

• Following ethical guidelines

3. Data Transcription

Audio recordings are transcribed into text for analysis.

Transcription allows researchers to:

• examine language use

• identify themes

• analyse narratives
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 Conclusion

Qualitative interviewing is a powerful research tool for exploring human

experiences, meanings, and perspectives. It allows participants to express their
views in depth and enables researchers to investigate complex psychological
phenomena that cannot easily be measured through quantitative methods.

However, successful qualitative interviewing requires:

• careful planning

• strong interpersonal skills

• rigorous analysis

When used appropriately, it can produce insightful and meaningful research

ndings.
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