GENETICS * Naturally self-fertilizes
Genetics:The branch of biology that studies how traits are inherited * Easy Cross-Pollination:
and how genes control characteristics. * Pure-breeding varieties were readily obtainable.
Heredity: The transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
Variation: Differences in traits among individuals of the same MENDEL'S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
species. 1. Law of Dominance: In a heterozygote, one allele (dominant)
masks the expression of the other allele (recessive).
KEY TERMS IN GENETICS 2. Law of Segregation (First Law): During gamete formation,
Gene: A unit of heredity; a segment of DNA that codes for a specific the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate)
protein or trait. from each other such that each gamete receives only one
Chromosome: A thread-like structure made of DNA and protein, allele.
carrying genetic information. 3. Law of Independent Assortment (Second Law): Alleles for
Types of Chromosomes by Centromere Position different genes assort independently of each other during
* Metacentric: The centromere is exactly in the middle gamete formation, provided they are located on different
* Submetacentric: The centromere is slightly off-center, creating chromosomes or are far apart on the same chromosome.
arms of unequal length.
* Acrocentric: The centromere is very close to one end, resulting in GENETIC CROSSES
one very short arm and one very long arm. ● Monohybrid Cross: A cross between two organisms that are
* Telocentric: The centromere is right at the very end of the heterozygous for one gene {e.g., Aa x Aa}
chromosome, so there's only one visible arm.
● Dihybrid Cross: A cross between two organisms that are
Genome: The complete set of genes or genetic material in an
heterozygous for two genes {e.g., AaBb x AaBb}
organism.
Locus: The specific physical location of a gene on a chromosome.
Allele: Different forms or variants of a gene found at the same
locus.
Genotype: The genetic makeup or combination of alleles an
organism possesses.
Phenotype: The observable traits or physical expression of the
genotype.
Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence that may alter a gene's
function.
Dominant Allele: An allele that expresses its effect even when only
one copy is present in a heterozygote.
Recessive Allele: An allele that is only expressed when two copies
are present (homozygous recessive).
Homozygosity: A condition where an individual has two identical ● Punnett Square: A diagram used to predict the genotypes
alleles for a trait (\text{e.g., AA or aa}). and phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross.
Heterozygosity: A condition where an individual has two different
alleles for a trait (\text{e.g., Aa}).
Haploid (n): A cell with one complete set of chromosomes (e.g.,
gametes, such as sperm and egg}).
Diploid (2n): A cell with two complete sets of chromosomes (e.g.,
somatic cells}).
HUMAN GENOME
Diploid Number: Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Autosomes: 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes.
Sex Chromosomes: 1 pair that determines biological sex.
Male Genome: 22 pairs of autosomes + XY sex chromosomes.
Female Genome: 22 pairs of autosomes + XX sex chromosomes.
MENDEL’S WORK ON GENETICS
Gregor Mendel is the father of genetics. He conducted experiments
on pea plants and discovered fundamental laws of inheritance.
Features of Mendel’s Work
● Used pea plants (Pisum sativum) with contrasting traits (e.g.,
tall/short, purple/white flowers). MENDELIAN TRAITS (FEATURES)
Major reasons Mendel chose Pisum sativum: ● Controlled by single genes with two alleles.
* Easy to Cultivate ● Show clear dominant and recessive patterns.
* Short Generation Time: Quick life cycle ● Follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
* Many Offspring: Produces a large number of seeds ● Examples in humans: Earlobe attachment (attached vs.
* Distinct Traits: Possesses clear, easily distinguishable contrasting unattached), widow’s peak (present vs. absent), tongue
characteristics rolling (ability vs. inability).
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
● Incomplete Dominance: Neither allele is completely
dominant, resulting in a blended phenotype in heterozygotes
(e.g. red + white = pink flowers).
● Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally and
distinctly in the heterozygote (e.g. AB blood type where both
A and B antigens are present}).
● Multiple Alleles: More than two alleles exist for a gene within
a population
● Polygenic Inheritance: Traits controlled by two or more
genes, often resulting in a continuous range of phenotypes
(\text{e.g., human height, skin color}).
● Sex-Linked Inheritance: Genes located on the sex
chromosomes (X or Y), often leading to different inheritance
patterns in males and females (e.g. red-green color
blindness, hemophilia).
KARYOTYPING
The process of pairing and ordering all the chromosomes of an
organism to examine their number and structure.
Use:
● Detect chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., Down
syndrome/Trisomy 21, Klinefelter syndrome, Turner
syndrome).
● Determine biological gender.
● Study genetic diseases and chromosomal rearrangements
(deletions, duplications, translocations).