7.

0 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL AND HEALTH EDUCATION

7.1 Introduction to Functional Human Anatomy 2hrs

Activities

a. Identify the bones of the human skeleton

b. Outline the types and structure of the muscles in the human body
c. Describe the type and the characteristics of joints in the human skeleton
d. Explain the type of synovial joints in the human skeleton
e. Draw and label the knee joint
f. Discuss and explain the elbow, shoulder and hip joints.
g. Examine the composition of the human blood
h. Describe the type and structure of the muscle tissues in the human body
i. Describe the properties of muscle tissue in the human body
j. Describe the types and characteristics of muscle fibre in the muscular skeleton
k. Analyse major body systems involved in the mechanics of movement

a. Describe the functions of bones of the human skeleton

b. Describe the functions of ligaments and joints in the human skeleton
c. Describing the functions of muscles of the human skeleton
d. Outline the type of movement originating from each type of joint in the human
skeleton (knee, hip, elbow and shoulder joint)
e. Illustrate the types of movements associated with each type of joint in the human
body
f. Analyse a netball shot indicating the muscular-skeletal system that produce the shot
g. Explain the characteristics of muscle fibres in relation to movement
h. Explain the functions of blood in the human body
i. Describe the production of energy in the body cells for exercise
Bones of the human skeleton
Skeleton System

Skeleton System. The human skeleton system can be divided into two parts:

i) Axial Skeleton. Formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage and the skull.

ii) Appendicular Skeleton. Is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the pectoral girdle,
the pelvic girdle and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

Functions of Bones

1. Provide Support

2. Provide Protection of organs e.g. the skull protects the brain

3. Bony System Serves for the Attachment of Muscles

4. Bony System gives Shape to the Body

5. Act as Levers

6. Passive Instruments of Locomotion

Classification of Bones According to shape & formation:

1. Long bones

2. Short bones

3. Flat bones

4. Irregular bones

5. Sesamoid bones

 Long bone Elongated bone to which powerful muscles, such as those of the leg and arm,
are attached. (Femur, humerus, tibia etc.)
  Short bone Bones shaped somewhat like cubes that facilitate flexibility of the joints;
examples include the bones of the wrist and ankle.
 Flat bone are thin bones that protect certain organs, including most of the bones of the
skull as well as the scapula, pelvis and ribs.
 Irregular bone Bones of varying shapes and sizes, such as the vertebrae and certain bones
of the skull or pelvis.
 Sesamoid bone Resemble seed of sesame. Found in knee, hand & foot

Joints

A joint is the place at which 2 or more bones meet in skeleton of the body. Study of joint is
Arthrology.

According to capability of movement, the joints can be classified into 3 categories:

1. Immovable or Synarthroses Joints

2. Slightly Moveable or Ampharthroses Joints

3. Freely Moveable or Diarthroses Joints

 Immovable are found in the bones of skull

 In Slightly Moveable joints, Surfaces of the bones are separated by some intervening
substance. Only slight movement is possible. There are two varieties of slightly movable
joints:
 Symphysis: a joint where two long bony surfaces are connected by a broad, flat disc
of fibrocartilage e.g., inter-vertebral & pubis joint.
 Synchondrosis: a temporary form of joint. Cartilage is changed to bone before
adulthood.
 Freely Moveable or Diarthroses Joints Freely Moveable or Synovial joints:
These are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones. This space is
referred to as the synovial (or joint) cavity and is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid
lubricates the joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater
movement. The ends of the bones are covered with articular cartilage, a hyaline cartilage,
and the entire joint is surrounded by an articular capsule composed of connective tissue
that allows movement of the joint while resisting dislocation. Articular capsules may also
possess ligaments that hold the bones together. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest
movement of the three structural joint types; however, the more mobile a joint, the
weaker the joint. Knees, elbows, and shoulders are examples of synovial joints.

Movement at Synovial Joints

The wide range of movement allowed by synovial joints produces different types of
movements. The movement of synovial joints can be classified as one of four different
types: gliding, angular, rotational, or special movement.

1. Gliding Movement
Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Gliding
movements produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones. The joints of
the carpal and tarsal bones are examples of joints that produce gliding movements.
2. Angular Movement
Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes.
There are several different types of angular movements, including flexion, extension,
hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction.
 Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between the bones decreases.
Moving the forearm upward at the elbow or moving the wrist to move the hand
toward the forearm are examples of flexion.
 Extension is the opposite of flexion in that the angle between the bones of a joint
increases. Straightening a limb after flexion is an example of extension.
Extension past the regular anatomical position is referred to as hyperextension.
This includes moving the neck back to look upward, or bending the wrist so that
the hand moves away from the forearm.
 Abduction occurs when a bone moves away from the midline of the body.
Examples of abduction are moving the arms or legs laterally to lift them straight
out to the side.
  Adduction is the movement of a bone toward the midline of the body.
Movement of the limbs inward after abduction is an example of adduction.
 Circumduction is the movement of a limb in a circular motion, as in moving the
arm in a circular motion.
3. Rotational Movement
Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its longitudinal axis.
Rotation can be toward the midline of the body, which is referred to as medial rotation, or
away from the midline of the body, which is referred to as lateral rotation. Movement of
the head from side to side is an example of rotation.
4. Special Movements
Some movements that cannot be classified as gliding, angular, or rotational are called
special movements. E.g.
 Inversion involves the soles of the feet moving inward, toward the midline of the
body.
 Eversion is the opposite of inversion, movement of the sole of the foot outward,
away from the midline of the body.
 Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal plane.
 Retraction occurs as a joint moves back into position after protraction.
Protraction and retraction can be seen in the movement of the mandible as the jaw
is thrust outwards and then back inwards.
 Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are
shrugged, lifting the scapulae.
 Depression is the opposite of elevation—movement downward of a bone, such
as after the shoulders are shrugged and the scapulae return to their normal
position from an elevated position.
 Dorsiflexion is a bending at the ankle such that the toes are lifted toward the
knee.
 Plantar flexion is a bending at the ankle when the heel is lifted, such as when
standing on the toes.
 Supination is the movement of the radius and ulna bones of the forearm so that
the palm faces forward.
  Pronation is the opposite movement, in which the palm faces backward.
 Opposition is the movement of the thumb toward the fingers of the same hand,
making it possible to grasp and hold objects.

Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape
and structure of the joint. These joints can be described as planar, hinge, pivot,
condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-socket joints

1. Pivot joint 2. Hinge joint. 3. Saddle joint 4. Plane joint

5. Ball and socket joint. 6. Condyloid joint

1. Planar Joints - Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly
curved faces. These joints allow for gliding movements, and so the joints are sometimes referred
to as gliding joints. The range of motion is limited in these joints and does not involve rotation.
Planar joints are found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of the foot, as well as
between vertebrae.
2. Hinge Joints - In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly
hollow end of the other bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary,
like the hinge of a door. The elbow is an example of a hinge joint.

3. Pivot Joints - Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by
the other bone. This structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its
own axis. An example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck
that allows the head to move back and forth. The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the
hand to be turned up and down is also a pivot joint.

4. Condyloid Joints - Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a
similarly oval-shaped hollow of another bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint.
This type of joint allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and
fingers, which can move both side to side and up and down.

4. Saddle Joints - Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle,
with concave and convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements
similar to condyloid joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the
thumb joint, which can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or
fingers.

5. Ball-and-Socket Joints - Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone
fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of
motion, as all movement types are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints
are the shoulder and hip joints

Muscles
Properties of Muscles
 Contractibility - cells generate pulling force
 Elasticity - after being stretched, muscle passively recoils to resume its
resting length
  Excitability - nervous impulses travel through muscle plasma membrane to
stimulate contraction
 Extensibility - after contraction muscle can be stretched back to original
length by opposing muscle action
Structure & Functions of Muscles

Structure of Muscles All the muscles in the human body show biochemical specialisation which
allows them to perform their particular physiological functions. The eyeballs are steered by
extra-ocular muscles when reading: they must contract quickly and precisely, but the muscles in
the back and buttocks evolved for continuous heavy lifting where fuel economy is important.
The hollow viscera often require a slow steady squeeze to function properly.

Three types on the basis of their structure:

1) Voluntary or skeletal muscle is under conscious control. Each fibre is an enormous,

multi-nucleate cell, formed by fusing hundreds of myoblasts end-to- end. They show a
striated pattern, reflecting the regular arrangement of sarcomeres within each cell.
Skeletal or Voluntary or Striped Muscle are of two broad types:
i. Slow twitch or "red" muscle - is dense with capillaries, is rich in mitochondria
and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color. It can carry
more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity using fats or carbohydrates as fuel.
ii. Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force.
2) Cardiac muscle is similar to skeletal muscle, but is not under conscious control. These mono-
nucleate cells are much smaller, but still show a striated pattern. Cardiac Muscle are found in
Heart, are Involuntary, they have little capacity for regeneration, red in colour, have stripes like
in voluntary muscles and this fibres have branches

3) Involuntary or Smooth muscle is closer to non-muscle cells. No regular striations are visible
and the contractions are much slower. Smooth muscle is found in the blood vessels, gut, skin,
eye pupils, urinary and reproductive tracts. Involuntary or Smooth or Unstriped Muscle are
responsible for characteristic movements associated with alimentary canal, control and adjust the
diameter of blood vessels and the ducts of glandular tissue, contract without nervous stimulation
and respond slowly to stimuli but are capable of long time sustained contractions Oesophagus
Stomach Pyloric sphincter Duodenum
 Functions of Muscles
1. The muscular system creates movement

2. It protects the organs

3. The cardiac muscle pumps blood
4. Smooth muscle aids digestion
5. Smooth muscle ensures blood flow

7.3 Introduction to Exercise Physiology and Physical Fitness (2hrs)

Activities

a. Explain the benefits of exercise to the growth and development of a learner

b. Investigate the short and long- term effects of exercise on the body systems (cardiac,
nervous, muscular, immune, skeletal and respiratory systems)
c. Describe fatigue and the recovery process after exercise
d. Measure the level of flexibility, balance and reaction time using appropriate tools.
(Flexibility-sit and reach test, balance-stork/flaming test, reaction time- ruler drop
method.)
e. Describe the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
f. Explain the physiological factors determining strength, speed, flexibility and
endurance
g. Analyse the physiological changes due to aging and the role of exercises in the aging
population
h. Explain the effect of warm up and cool down exercises in the body
i. Describe the muscular contractions that occur during exercise. Give an example in
each case.(concentric, eccentric and isometric)

Physiology is the study of the function of organisms.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Exercise physiology is the study of how body structure and function are altered by exposure to
acute and chronic exercise.

Sport physiology is the application of the concepts of exercise physiology to training athletes
and enhancing sport performance.

Acute exercise is a single bout of exercise.

Chronic adaptation is a physiological change that occurs when the body is exposed to repeated
exercise bouts over a period of weeks or months. These changes generally improve the body’s
efficiency at rest and during exercise

Cardiovascular System

Short term effects

 HR increases
 Body temperature increases
 Blood pressure increases

Long term effects

 Cardiac hypertrophy
 Normal HR reduces (at rest)
 Normal stroke volume (at rest) increases
 Cardiac output increases
 Capillarization ventilation Increase in blood volume
 Increase in blood volume
 Decreased recovery time
 Increased aerobic fitness diffusion rate etc.

The Muscular System

Short term effects

 Accumulation of lactic acid causing fatigue

 Muscle injury in case of improper training or warm-ups

Long term effects

 Increased muscle strength and size

 Increased muscular endurance
 Muscle tone increases
 Muscles becomes more efficient
 Number and size of mitochondria increases etc.

Respiratory system

Short term effects

Long term effects

 Help strengthen the respiratory muscles.

 Increase the number of capillaries around the alveoli which in turn facilitates efficient
exchange of gasses.
 Efficiency of lungs improves through regular exercise.
 Increased blood flow, which in turn strengthens the lungs and ensures better exchange of
gasses.
 Breathing rate is lowered
 Tidal air capacity increases
 Recovery period reduces after strenuous activity
 Cardio respiratory endurance improves
 Vital capacity improves especially in adolescence
 Residual volume decreases
 Maximum respiratory minute volume that can be achieved during strenuous exercise
increase
Skeletal system

Short Term Effects

Increased Range of Movement e.g., extension, flexion, abduction etc.

Long Term Effects

 Weight bearing exercise causes more minerals to be stored in the bones including
calcium & collagen thus bones get stronger
 Ligaments & tendons become stronger and more flexible
 Increased thickness of Hyaline Cartilage on the ends of bones becomes thicker to cope
with the extra wear & tear and shock absorption from increase in activity
 Increased Production of Synovial Fluid because the joints are being used more through
exercise the synovial membrane produces more fluid to keep the joints lubricated
 Postural defects corrected
 Production of more blood cells in the bone marrow
Nervous system
Long term effects
 Neuro muscular coordination improves
 Response time reduces
 Delayed fatigue during prolonged activities
 The strength of muscle contraction is adjusted in accordance with force required to
perform muscular act therefore decreasing energy expenditure
Research the effects of exercise in other body systems such as digestive system,
reproductive system and so forth.

RECOVERY AND FATIGUE

Fatigue is physical or mental lethargy or exhaustion triggered by stress, exercise, overwork,

illness or disease

Types of fatigue
  Physical fatigue is the inability to continue functioning at the level of normal physical
capabilities
 Mental fatigue is a lack of mental clarity, concentration difficulties, sleepiness and/or
memory loss

Recovery

Recovery is a way of overcoming or reversal of fatigue. The body systems repair damaged
tissues and replenish energy stores. Insufficient recovery can lead to overtraining or long term
(chronic) fatigue

Ways of recovery:

i. Cool down/active recovery

• Low intensity (60-70% MHR)

• Maintains adequate blood flow to muscles

• Prevents venous pooling

• Return to resting levels

ii. Passive rest

• Non activity

• Sleep 8-10 hours maintains reaction time, agility, speed, visual processing & concentration

• Rest days in training program

iii. Replenish energy stores

• Replenish glycogen stores (CHO) (65% diet) –Should be replenished in first 15-30 mins with
high GI foods

• Protein to repair muscle fibres (15% diet)

• Fats to restore energy & supply vitamins (20% diet)

iv. Rehydration

• Be hydrated before exercise 400-600mL in 2 hours prior

• 200-300mL every 15-20 mins during exercise.

v. Refueling for events

• Short Duration & High Intensity (<60mins): –Glycogen stores should be adequate pre-event –
Focus on rehydration

• Moderate Intensity & Intermittent Sports (60-90mins): –Glycogen stores should be adequate
pre-event –Tapering –Focus on rehydration

• Prolonged Sub-max Exercise (>90mins): –CHO loading –Tapering –Consume CHO during
event –Rehydration

vi. Hydrotherapy

• External application of water (liquid, ice, hot, cold or warm) to heal & recover

vii. Cryotherapy

• Ice packs, pool sessions, ice baths & ice vests

• Reduce blood flow to reduce swelling and fluid retention around joint

• Important for injured or damaged sites

• Causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels & removal of waste products

• Maintains core body temperature

viii. Hot and cold contrast therapy

• Alternate between hot/cold shower, spa/plunge pool or water immersion

• Relaxes muscles

• Assists neurological recovery

• Change between vasodilation and vasoconstriction to remove waste products & deliver
nutrients

ix. Compression

• Increased blood flow

• Increase venous return & reduce blood pooling

• Decrease blood lactate levels

• reduce swelling

Increase skin temperature.

x. Massage

• Relaxation & stress release

• Stimulates blood flow

• Relieve swelling

• Removal lactic acid and metabolic by-products

• Reduce muscle stiffness, cramping & soreness

xi. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy

• Treat soft tissue injuries

• 100% pure oxygen increased atmospheric pressure

• Increase blood oxygen levels to assist muscle recovery

Generation of energy for muscular activity

Energy is generated through two major metabolic pathways

1. Aerobic system – oxygen is brought to the muscle cells by blood. It provides energy for
prolonged activities taking more than 5 minutes.
2. Anaerobic system – produces energy without the presence of oxygen. It is possible in
two ways:
i. ATP and Creatine phosphate stored in the muscle provides energy for
efforts which takes short periods of up to 30 seconds
ii. Glycogen also stored in the muscle cells is broken down to produce energy
and a waste product lactic acid is formed. It provides energy for short term
efforts lasting 3o seconds to 2 minutes

Muscular contractions in exercises

While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten, or remain the same. Although the term
contraction implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system, it means muscle fibers
generating tension with the help of motor neurons. Several types of muscle contractions occur
and they are defined by the changes in the length of the muscle during contraction. They include:

 Isotonic Contractions - Isotonic contractions maintain constant tension in the muscle as

the muscle changes length. This can occur only when a muscle’s maximal force of
 contraction exceeds the total load on the muscle. Isotonic muscle contractions can be
either concentric (muscle shortens) or eccentric (muscle lengthens).
 Concentric Contractions - A concentric contraction is a type of muscle contraction in
which the muscles shorten while generating force. This is typical of muscles that contract
due to the sliding filament mechanism, and it occurs throughout the muscle. Such
contractions also alter the angle of the joints to which the muscles are attached, as they
are stimulated to contract according to the sliding filament mechanism.
 Eccentric Contractions - An eccentric contraction results in the elongation of a muscle.
Such contractions decelerate the muscle joints (acting as “brakes” to concentric
contractions) and can alter the position of the load force. These contractions can be both
voluntary and involuntary. During an eccentric contraction, the muscle elongates while
under tension due to an opposing force which is greater than the force generated by the
muscle. Rather than working to pull a joint in the direction of the muscle contraction, the
muscle acts to decelerate the joint at the end of a movement or otherwise control the
repositioning of a load
 Isometric Contractions - In contrast to isotonic contractions, isometric contractions
generate force without changing the length of the muscle. This is typical of muscles
found in the hands and forearm: the muscles do not change length, and joints are not
moved, so force for grip is sufficient. An example is when the muscles of the hand and
forearm grip an object; the joints of the hand do not move, but muscles generate
sufficient force to prevent the object from being dropped.

Physical Benefits of Exercise

 Strengthening body organs such as lungs and heart.

 Strengthens Bones
 Reduces Risk of Diabetes
 Improves gross motor co-ordination. i.e., use of all parts of the body
 Regulates Blood Pressure
 Controls Weight
 Release tension, aggression and anger in a socially acceptable way.
 Increases Cognition
  Improves Self-Confidence

7.4 Sports Nutrition (2hrs)

Activities

a. Explain the terms used in sports nutrition. (Electrolyte, body

water balance, dehydration, hypodration, hyperdration,
dehydration hypothermia). Give their effects in sports
performance
b. Outline the goals of nutrition in sports
c. Describe the relevance of testing for dehydration during sports
d. Explain the type of fats, functions and reasons for inclusion in an
athlete's diet
e. Explain the considerations to make when planning a meal for an
athlete before, during and after the completions. (consider
immune boosting foods, macro, micro and nonnutritive
components of the diet)

Terms used in sports nutrition

Nutrition is the sum total of the processes involved when you take in food, the way you utilized
the food substances, which include ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport and utilization of
nutrients found in food.

Nutrients are defined as the constituents of food, which perform important functions in our
body.

Sports Nutrition is the practical science of hydrating (adequate water intake) and fueling
(Adequate food intake) before, during, and after exercise
Food refers to anything, which nourishes your body. This includes solids (pounded yam, sweet
potatoes) semi-solids (white rice, mashed potatoes, porridge), and liquids e.g., milk which can be
consumed and help to sustain body and keep it healthy.
Food is broadly classified as: Cereals, Pulses, Vegetable, Fruits, Protein (milk, meat, eggs) Fats
and Sugars (carbohydrate).
Food is also said to be plant and animal products that may be taken into the body to yield
nutrients

Basic food groups

The six classes of nutrients are:

1. Carbohydrates.
2. Proteins.
3. Lipids (fats).
4. Vitamins.
5. Minerals
6. Water.
Each type of nutrient has a specific purpose and meets a specific need in your body.

Water

Water and food are basic requirements of life. It is a simple compound of two atoms of hydrogen
and one of oxygen (H2O). Water and fluids are essential to keep the body hydrated and at the
right temperature.

 Water regulates our body temperature by dissipating that heat.

 Water also carries nutrients to the cells in our body.
 Not drinking enough water can increase the risk of kidney stones and in women, urinary
tract infection.
 It can also lower your physical and mental performance and salivary gland function and
lead to dehydration.
 Dehydration occurs when the water content of the body is too low. This is easily fixed by
fluid intake.
Do you still remember the signs and symptoms of dehydration?

Water and Sports Performance.

Fluid needs of athletes during training and competition vary greatly depending on
many factors.

For upcoming athletes exercising in mild conditions, less fluid may be needed.

Well-trained athletes competing at high intensities in warm condition may need more fluid.

Importance of fluids intake to athletes’ performance

 Fluid consumption prior to exercise is recommended to ensure that an athlete is well

hydrated prior to commencing exercise.
 Carefully planned hyperhydration (fluid overloading) prior to an event may reset fluid
balance and increase fluid retention.
 Fluid acts as thermoregulator

Importance of Water

 Aids digestion and prevent constipation.

 Moisten mucous membranes such as those of the lungs and month.
 Water is a solvent for the products of digestion.
 Moisturize the skin to maintain its texture and appearance.
 It is a carrier of nutrients as well as of waste.
 Regulate body temperature through sweating.
 Lubricate and cushion joints.
 Carry nutrients and oxygen to cells.
 Water is essential as a body lubricant.
 Maintain the health of every cell in the body.
 Keep the blood stream liquid enough to flow through blood vessels.
  Help eliminate the byproduct of body metabolism, excess electrolytes (e.g. sodium and
potassium) and urea, which is a waste product formed through the processing of dietary
protein.

Adequate Diet for Sport Performance

An athlete‘s dietary requirements depend on several aspects, including the sport, the athlete‘s
goals, the environment, and practical issues

Adequate Diet for Athlete

Eating a good diet can help provide the energy you need to finish a race, or just enjoy a casual
sport or activity. You are more likely to be tired and perform poorly during sports when you do
not get enough: Calories, Carbohydrates, Fluids, Iron, vitamins, and other minerals

Recommendations
The ideal diet for an athlete is not very different from the diet recommended for any healthy
person. However, the amount of each food group you need will depend on:-
i. The type of sport
ii. The amount of training you do
iii. The amount of time you spend doing the activity or exercise

People tend to overestimate the amount of calories they burn per workout so it is important to
avoid taking in more energy than you expend exercising.
To help you perform better, avoid exercising on an empty stomach.

Importance of carbohydrates to athletes’ performance

Carbohydrates are needed to provide energy during exercise. Carbohydrates are stored mostly in
the muscles and liver. Carbohydrate loading aims to maximize an athlete‘s muscle glycogen
stores prior to endurance exercise lasting longer than 90 minutes.
Benefits include delayed onset of fatigue and improvement in performance.
Procedure for carbohydrate loading:
Initial protocols involved a depletion phase (3 days of intense training and low carbohydrate
intake) followed by a loading phase (3 days of reduced training and high carbohydrate intake).
However, muscle glycogen concentrations could also enhance a similar level without the
glycogen-depletion phase. Likewise, 24 hours may be sufficient to maximize glycogen stores.
There appears to be no advantage to increasing pre-exercise muscle glycogen content for
moderate-intensity performance like, cycling or running of 60–90 minutes, as significant levels
of glycogen remain in the muscle following exercise. For exercise shorter than 90 minutes, 7–12
g of carbohydrate/kg of body weight should be consumed during the 24 hours preceding.
Carbohydrate eaten in about 2 to 3 hours prior to exercise (compared with an overnight fast) has
been shown to increase muscle glycogen stores and carbohydrate oxidation, extend time to
exhaustion, and improve exercise performance. In long duration events, carbohydrate improves
performance primarily by preventing hypoglycemia and maintaining high levels of carbohydrate
oxidation.
Importance of proteins to athletes’ performance
While protein consumption prior to and during endurance and resistance exercise has been
shown to enhance rates of muscle protein synthesis (MPS), a recent review found protein
ingestion alongside carbohydrate during exercise does not improve time–trial performance when
compared with the ingestion of adequate amounts of carbohydrate alone. Protein is important for
muscle growth and to repair body tissues. Protein can also be used by the body for energy, but
only after carbohydrate stores have been used up both for athletes and non-athletes. Often,
people who focus on eating extra protein may not get enough carbohydrates, which are the most
important source of energy during exercise.
Importance of vitamins and minerals intake to athletes’ performance
Supplement use in form of vitamins and minerals is widespread in athletes, with recent interest in
the beneficial effects of nitrate, beta-alanine, and vitamin D on performance.
However, an unregulated supplement industry and inadvertent contamination of supplements
with banned substances increases the risk of a positive doping result.
Nutrition can help enhance athletic performance. Eating a good diet can help provide enough
vitamins and minerals you need as athlete. However, prolong endurance exercise, nitrate
supplementation has been shown to increase exercise efficiency (4%–5%) reduction in VO2 at a
steady state; 0.9% improvement in time trials), reduce fatigue, and attenuate oxidative stress.
PLANNING THE ATHLETE’S DIET

When one is engaged in any form of physical activity, the body needs some form of energy. If
this is not provided it is like a car running on empty gas tank. Prior to strenuous activity it is
imperative that the body has the required amounts of nutrients to carry out activities. There are
three basic keys to athlete‘s healthy eating. They include the following:
i. Variety – there is no one magic food

ii. Moderation – all foods can fit into a well-balanced diet

iii. Wholesomeness – choose natural or lightly processed foods as often as

possible

Benefits of Sports Nutrition during Training

 Enables you to train longer and harder.

 Delays the onset of fatigue.
 Enhances performance.
 Improves body composition and strength.
 Enhances concentration.
 Helps maintain healthy immune function.
 Reduces the potential for injury.
 Promotes optimal recovery and adaptation to your workouts.
 Reduces the risk of heat cramps and stomach aches.

Content of athletes’ diet

High-quality carbohydrates for athletes

 Whole grain breads

 Whole-wheat pasta
 Brown rice
  Whole-grain cereals
 Some vegetables
 Athletes should take mostly unsaturated fats. Limit saturated fats to less than 20
grams per day or less than 10% of Total Calories
Avoid Trans fats whenever possible. obtain majority of fats from vegetable oils, nuts,
lean proteins and non-/low-fat dairy
Lean protein
Protein in athletes ‘meals should be mostly of lean meat (meat with no fat) like:
 Lean cuts of beef
 Eggs/egg-whites
 Non-fat/low-fat milks and cheeses
 Cottage Cheese
 Non-fat/low-fat yogurt
 Grilled chicken breast
 Tuna and other fish
 Beans

Protein needs of athletes

Athletes require more protein than sedentary individuals because of wear and tears of body cells
and tissues during performance.
Strength athletes require 1.6 to 1.7 g/kg/day
Adequate caloric intake is more important than elevated protein intake.
One-half kilogram of muscle per week requires only 14 additional grams of protein per day.
Endurance athletes require 1.2 to 1.5 g/kg/day
The high carbohydrate diet recommended for endurance athletes spares protein.
Breakfast
A balanced breakfast provides significant amounts of Calories and other nutrients in the daily
diet of the physically active person. A breakfast high in fiber with an average amount of protein
will also help prevent the onset of mid-morning hunger. Skipping breakfast could produce
hypoglycemia with resultant symptoms of weakness and possible impairment of training.
Meal at night before competition
The meal eaten the night before (or even two nights before) competition is more important than
the meal eaten right before competition.
The meal the night before competition should be heavy on carbohydrates, light to moderate in
protein and low in fat.

 Pre-competition meal
It is a well-established fact that the ingestion of food just prior to competition will not
benefit physical performance in most athletic events. However, the pre-competition meal
should do the following:
i. allow the stomach to be relatively empty at the start of competition
ii. help to prevent or minimize gastrointestinal stress
iii. help avoid sensations of hunger, lightheadedness, or fatigue
iv. provide adequate fuel supplies, primarily carbohydrate, in the blood and
muscles
v. provide an adequate amount of body water
vi. In general, a solid meal should be eaten about 3 to 4 hours prior to competition.
Composition of meal:
i. High in carbohydrate, low in fat, and low to moderate in protein, providing
for easy digestibility
ii. Avoid gas formers (beans), spicy foods, and bulk foods (bran products)
iii. Meals other than the pre-competition meal eaten on the same day should not be
skipped.
Pre-competition meal and the use of liquid meals and sports Bars.
Advantages of liquid meals over solid meals for pre-competition nutrition:
i. Well balanced in nutritional value
ii. High carbohydrate content
iii. No bulk, easily swallowed and digested
iv. Practical, may be taken closer to competition

Advantages of sports bars:

 Is good source of Carbohydrate?

Meal during competition

There is no need to consume anything during most types of athletic competition with the possible
exception of carbohydrates, water and electrolytes/energy gels depending on the events or
competition.

 Carbohydrate may provide additional supplies of the preferred energy source during
prolonged exercise (example is glucose in Gatorade, energy gels, etc.)
 Water intake may be critical for regulation of body temperature when exercising in warm
environments.
During exercise, the primary goals for nutrient consumption are to:
 replace fluid losses
 Provide carbohydrate for the maintenance of blood glucose levels.

Athletes can consume 25 to 30 gm of carbohydrate for every 30 minutes of exercise.

Meal after exercise

 The goal of post-workout meal/snack is to replenish glycogen stores and provide

adequate protein to repair worn-out muscle tissues
 The body system may find it difficult to tolerate heavy meals immediately after strenuous
exercise. However, the body should be able to accommodate meal after
30-60 minutes of a heavy workout
 It is recommended that you consume an easy-to-digest, carbohydrate based snack (about
40–60 grams of carbs) 30–60 minutes after exercise, along with fluids.
 Try liquid carbohydrate sources in place of solid foods.

Examples of quick-to-digest, carbohydrate-based options include:

 Fruit smoothie or meal-replacement beverage

 Performance Energy bar, Energy Gel,
  Small roll or sandwich made with a banana and honey
 Low-fat or non-fat yogurt or frozen yogurt.
 Likewise, carbohydrate with a small amount of protein can be taken. Examples include:
Yogurt and fruit, Bagel with peanut butter, Energy bar

Follow the above post-workout snack with a balanced meal (lunch or dinner) within 60-90
minutes

Post-competition meal
Even if the competition lasted for days an adequate and balanced diet is all that is necessary to
meet your nutrient needs and restore your nutritional status to normal.
However, simple sugars eaten immediately after a hard workout may help restore muscle
glycogen fairly rapidly, but the addition of protein to the carbohydrate source may be even more
effective. Therefore, athletes should consume adequate diet to:

i. Replace muscle glycogen stores

ii. Prevent gradual depletion of muscle glycogen stores over time caused by repetitive daily bouts
of heavy exercise
iii. Decrease muscle breakdown

7.5 Sports Training (2hrs)

Activities

a. Describe the components of fitness and types of methods for

development
b. Describe training methods in games and sports. (interval, fartlek,
circuit, aerobic, continuous, flexibility, static and dynamic training)
c. Explain the principles of training in sports performance (regularity,
overload, progression, specificity, variety, adaptation, recovery,
periodization and reversibility)
 d. Compile dynamic and static stretches for warmup and cool down
e. Justify the application of different tests in fitness testing
f. Explain the considerations to make when organizing to carry out
fitness testing
g. Analyse the factors that affect a team's training (initial level of fitness,
intensity, frequency, intensity, duration, training load, age, motivation,
plateau etc.)

Training in sports

4. 4 COMPONENTS OFPHYSICALFITNESS

Strength is the ability of the muscles to overcome resistance.

a) Facilitates the ability to resist disease as it affects organic efficiency.

b) It is the amount of force a muscle or muscles group can exert. c) It is achieved by voluntary
muscle contraction.

d) Specific type of strength is required in specific type of sports

e) Strength is divided into two types:

a) Dynamic Strength

b) Static Strength

Dynamic strength is also called isotonic strength because it is related to the movement which
is clearly visible.

Dynamic strength is of diminishing tendency in which muscles refuses to work after sometime.

In each sports movement, strength appears in a different form which are Maximum Strength,
Explosive Strength and Strength Endurance
Static strength is also called isometric strength. It is the ability of muscles to act against
resistance. This type of strength is not seen directly in sports but in some sports, it is applied in
phases.

Methods for improving strength in:

1. Isometric
 No change in the length of the muscles seen when pushing something
 Work done cannot be observed.
 Require less time and equipment
 Useful for maintaining strength in case of injury
2. Isotonic
 Movements of muscles can be observed directly
 Lengthening and shortening of muscles can be seen and called
eccentric contraction and concentric contraction
 When we throw a ball, jump. run, weight training, this type of
contraction occurs
 Increases the flexibility and length of the muscles and are good
for conditioning in sports.
3. Isokinetic
 Exercises are done using specially design machine and are
combination of isotonic and iso-metric exercises
 Machines allow for maximum resistance over the complete
range of motion
 These types of movements are usually applied in water
sports, skating, climbing, running etc.

Endurance

Ability to sustain an activity. Also defined as the ability to resist fatigue

Measured by the number of repetitions

Types of endurance

1. Types of endurance according to the nature of activity

a) Basic Endurance

b) General Endurance

c) Specific Endurance

2. Types of endurance according to the duration of activity

a) Speed Endurance

b) Short Term Endurance

c) Middle Term Endurance

d) Long Term Endurance

Methods to Develop Endurance

1. Continuous Training Method (Slow Continuous and Fast Continuous)

2. Interval Training Method

3. Fartlek Training Method

Continuous method

 Exercise is done for a long duration without taking rest

 Intensity of Exercise is low
 The heart rate during the exercise for a sportsman remains between 140-160 beats
/minute
 For fast continuous method the heart rate is increased up to 175-180 beats /minute.
Interval method

 Intervals are given to the athlete in between the repetition for complete recovery.
 Recovery period varies from person to person.
 Heart rate should go up to 180 beats/min and when the heart rate comes down to 120-
130 beats/min, again the repetition / work starts.
 Training load should be given again after checking the heart - rate of the athlete.
 Activity - Active Rest - Activity - Active Rest – Activity [Rest = Recovery]

Fartlek Training Method

 Fartlek is a Swedish word that means “speed”

 Blends continuous training and interval training
 Athlete plans his own pace
 Heart beat rate varies between 140 to 180 / minute
 Duration of training depends upon the athlete but should be 45 min
 It can vary from aerobic walking to anaerobic sprinting
 warm up in the beginning and cooling down at the end should be done
 Involves varying pace throughout run, alternating between fast and slow pace

Speed

It is the ability or capacity of an individual to perform a movement of the same pattern at faster
rate.

Types of speed

1. Reaction Ability (Simple Reaction Ability and Complex Reaction Ability)

2. Acceleration Ability

3. Movement Speed
4. Locomotor Ability

5. Speed Endurance

Methods to develop speed

Pace Runs - Pace run means running the whole distance with a constant speed. Generally, 800 m
and above races are included in pace races. An athlete can run a distance of 100 m at full speed
but in longer races such as 800 m or above, he must reserve his energy by reducing the speed.
For pace run training an athlete should run at maximum steady speed for a distance which is 10-
20% more than the racing distance of the event he is preparing for.

Flexibility

It is the range of movements of joints

Range of movements varies significantly from joint to joint but depends on the structure of the
surrounding tendons, ligaments and muscle tissues

Types of flexibility

 Ballistic Methods
 Static Stretching Method
 Dynamic Stretching Method
 Proprioceptive Neuro-Muscular Facilitation Technique

Methods to improve flexibility

Coordination Abilities

These are the abilities of an individual which enable him to do various related activities properly
and efficiently

Accuracy, rhythm, flow and consistency depend on coordinative abilities

Types:

1. Orientation Ability

2. Coupling Ability

3. Reaction Ability (Simple Reaction Ability and Complex Reaction Ability)

4. Balance Ability

5. Rhythm Ability

6. Adaptation Ability

7. Differentiation Ability

Methods for Improvement:

 Practicing physical exercise

 Correct and conscious movement
 Additional means to improve motor sense.
 Variation in exercises
 Degree of difficulty

Definition of Sports Training

Sports Training is scientific knowledge and a pedagogical process of sports perfection which,
through systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and readiness aiming to top
level.

Principles of Sports Training

1. The Principle of Continuity

2. The Principle of Overload

3. The Principle of Individual Differences

4. The Principle of General & Specific Preparation

5. The Principle of Progression

6. The Principle of Specificity

7. The Principle of Active Involvement

8. The Principle of variety

9. The Principle of warm up & cool down

10. The Principle of Rest & recovery

The Principle of Continuity:

 Training should be a continuous process

 Discontinuity of training reduces physiological capacities

The Principle of Overload:

 There should be greater than normal load on the body as required for training adaptation
 Training load should be increased for improving the performance
 The effectiveness of training diminishes if training load is static
 For continuous improvement, the training load should be increased after the adaptation of
previous training load

The Principle of Individual Difference:

 Every Sportsperson is different hence response to exercise or load varies.

 Training program should be modified to take individual difference into following
considerations:
 a. Large muscles heal slower than smaller muscles
b. Fast twitch muscles fibres recover quicker than slow twitch muscles
fibres
c. Women requires more recovery time
d. Fast or explosive movements require more recovery time

The Principle of General & Specific Preparation:

 General preparation serves as the base for specific preparation

 General preparation increases the functional capacity of all the body systems and organs
 Specific preparation improves the systems and organs on which the performance
directly depends

The Principle of Progression:

 The overload should not be increased too rapidly

 Rapid increase in overload may lead to injury or muscles damage
 Emphasize the need for proper rest and recovery

The Principle of Specificity:

 Exercising a certain part of the body primarily develop that part

 Runner should get trained by running
 Swimmer should get trained by swimming

The Principle of Active Involvement:

 Performance is the result of sportsperson’s efforts and coach’s skill

 Active involvement of coach & sports person is necessary

The Principle of Variety:

 Variety in the training programme helps to maintain the interest and motivation of the
sportsperson
  Changing the nature of exercise, time of the day of the session, training group & the
environment

The Principle of Warm up and Cool down:

 Warm-up through low intensity activity increases blood flow to the working muscles
and prepare them for high intensity sports
 Cool down helps in transferring blood from working muscles back to vital organs of the
body, Cool down also helps in removing the waste products in the body

The Principle of Rest & Recovery:

 Body regenerates during rest and becomes better & strong than before
 Training programme should be planned to provide proper rest and interval between
training activities

Fitness tests

A fitness test (fitness assessment) is comprised of a series of exercises that help evaluate your
overall health and physical status. There is wide of range of standardized tests used for these
exams, some of which are intended for medical purposes and others of which establish whether
you are qualified to participate (such as with the Army combat readiness test).

General Health Evaluation

Before starting a fitness program, it is important to share your medical history with your
trainer and to get the necessary approvals from your doctor to proceed. Most fitness
specialists will use one or more screening tools to help determine your baseline health.
Body Composition Testing
Body composition describes the different components that make up your total body
weight, including your muscles, bones, and fat. The most common methods for
estimating body composition include:
Cardiovascular Endurance Testing
 Cardiovascular endurance testing, also known as stress testing, measures how efficiently
your heart and lungs work to supply oxygen and energy to your body during physical
activity
Strength and Endurance Testing
Strength testing measures the maximal amount of force a muscle group can exert at one
time.
Flexibility Testing
Evaluates the flexibility and mobility body parts and joints.
Speed fitness tests
A test that is used to determine acceleration, maximum running and speed endurance.
Other examples include: Power tests, anaerobic endurance tests, local muscular
endurance tests, aerobic endurance tests, balance tests and reaction time tests.
7.6 Drug and substance abuses in games and sports (2hrs)

a. explain drugs and non-drug ergogenic aids used to enhance performance (use
WADA website)
b. describe the factors that promote the use of drug and non-drug ergogenic aids in
sports performance
c. design strategies for curbing the use of drugs and ergogenic aids in sports
d. describe the effects of drugs to an individual and the society
e. organise a mentorship programme for the learners on drugs and substance
abuse
f. prepare an ict integrated lesson form a strand in grade four curriculum Design

Drugs abuse in sports

Doping can be defined as use by a competing athlete of any substance foreign to the body or any
physiological substance taken in an abnormal quantity or taken by an abnormal route of entry
into the body with the sole purpose of increasing his/ her performance in an artificial and unfair
manner.
Prohibited substances

[Link] agents

[Link] and related agents

[Link] 2 adrenergic agonists

[Link] with anti- estrogenic activity

[Link] and other masking agents

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Prohibited methods

1. Enhancement of oxygen transfer by blood doping or administrating artificial oxygen carriers.

2. Gene doping

3. Pharmacological, physical or chemical manipulation

Anabolic androgenic steroids

1. Drugs like stanozolol, nandrolone, Zeranol, oxymetholone, methandienone are 19-

nortestosterone derivatives which possess a higher anabolic activity compared to their inherent
androgenic activity.
Anabolic steroids are most commonly abused by athletes to increase muscle mass, strength and
their performance.

Adverse effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids

High blood pressure High blood cholesterol levels Fluid retention Risk of heart disease Severe
acne Thinning of hair & baldness Liver disorders

Psychological disturbances

a. Mood swings

b. Aggression

c. Delusions

d. Impaired judgement

e. Depression

f. Nervousness and extreme irritability

Sexual and reproductive disorders In malesa.

a) Atrophy of the testicles

b. Loss of libido

c. Decreased sperm production

d. Breast and prostate enlargement

e. Decreased hormone levels

f. Sterility In femalesa.

a. Menstrual irregularities
b. Infertility

c. Masculinizing effects such as facial hair, decreased breast size, deepening of voice,
enlargement of clitoris

Hormones and related substances

These include erythropoietin, growth hormone, insulin like growth factor, human chorionic
gonadotrophin, leutinizing hormone, insulin, corticotrophin.

 Erythropoietin - Abused by athletes to improve aerobic performance by increasing the

oxygen availability to the tissues. Adverse effects include hypertension, increase in
hematocrit value leading to thrombosis
 Growth hormone - Athletes abuse GH to increase height and to enhance muscle mass.
Adverse effects include acromegaly, gigantism, metabolic and endocrine disorders.

Beta 2 adrenergic agonists - Commonly used to treat asthma, however if taken systemically,
they may have anabolic effects hence, all beta 2 agonists are prohibited, except the inhaled ones.

Diuretics - Athletes use diuretics for

 Acute reduction of weight which may offer advantage in sports such as boxing, judo or
weight lifting where competition is in weight categories.
 Overcoming fluid retention.
 Modifying excretion rate of urine and to alter urinary concentration of prohibited drugs.

Adverse effects include electrolyte imbalance, muscle cramps, dehydration.

Stimulants

 Examples– amphetamines, methamphetamines, phenmetrazine, methylphenidate,

cocaine, ephedrine.
 They produce alertness, wakefulness, hallucinations and increase the ability to
concentrate.
  They may improve capacity to exercise strenuously or produce decreased sensitivity to
pain by reducing fatigue.
 Due to its anorectic effect, weight categorized sports people like boxers and wrestlers
use these drugs to lose weight prior to competition.

Adverse effects– headache, anxiety, confusion, restlessness, tachyarrhythmias, withdrawal

symptoms on discontinuation after regular use, malnutrition and psychiatric disturbances when
used for long term.

Narcotic analgesics

Under the influence of narcotics, pain signals to the brain are suppressed. Hence, athletes may
abuse these drugs to perform better in spite of musculoskeletal injuries