Module 1

1. Causes of energy scarcity and solutions.

Introduction
Energy is essential for transportation, industries, agriculture, communication, and domestic activities.
Energy scarcity occurs when the demand for energy exceeds the available supply, leading to shortages
and economic challenges.
Causes of Energy Scarcity
1. Rapid Population Growth
• Increasing population leads to higher energy consumption.
• More houses, industries, and transportation systems require more electricity and fuel.
2. Industrialization and Urbanization
• Growth of industries increases the demand for coal, petroleum, natural gas, and electricity.
• Urban areas consume large amounts of energy for infrastructure and services.
3. Overdependence on Fossil Fuels
• Most countries depend heavily on coal, oil, and natural gas.
• These resources are finite and get depleted with continuous use.
4. Unequal Distribution of Energy Resources
• Energy resources are not evenly distributed across the world.
• Some regions face shortages due to limited local resources.
5. Wastage and Inefficient Use of Energy
• Use of outdated equipment and inefficient technologies causes energy loss.
• Energy wastage in homes, industries, and transportation increases scarcity.
6. Lack of Proper Energy Planning
• Poor management and inadequate investment in energy infrastructure lead to supply shortages.
7. Environmental Constraints
• Environmental regulations may limit the extraction and use of certain energy resources.
• Natural disasters can disrupt energy production and distribution.
8. Transmission and Distribution Losses
• Significant energy is lost during transmission and distribution due to technical issues and power
theft.
Solutions to Energy Scarcity
1. Promotion of Renewable Energy Sources
• Use solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal energy.
• Renewable sources are sustainable and environmentally friendly.
2. Energy Conservation
• Turn off unused electrical appliances.
• Use energy-efficient devices and LED lighting.
• Encourage public awareness about energy saving.
3. Improving Energy Efficiency
• Adopt modern technologies in industries and power plants.
• Use energy-efficient motors, machines, and appliances.
4. Diversification of Energy Sources
• Reduce dependence on a single source of energy.
• Develop a balanced mix of conventional and renewable energy resources.
5. Reduction of Transmission Losses
• Upgrade transmission lines and distribution networks.
• Implement smart grid technologies.
6. Government Policies and Planning
• Formulate effective energy policies.
• Encourage investment in renewable energy projects.
• Provide incentives for energy-efficient technologies.
7. Development of Alternative Fuels
• Promote biofuels, hydrogen fuel, and electric vehicles.
• Reduce reliance on petroleum products.
8. Public Awareness and Education
• Conduct energy conservation campaigns.
• Educate people about sustainable energy practices.
2. Classification of energy resources and factors affecting energy resource development.
Classification of Energy Resources and Factors Affecting Energy Resource Development
Introduction
Energy resources are the sources from which energy is obtained to meet the needs of domestic,
industrial, agricultural, and transportation sectors. Proper classification and development of energy
resources are essential for sustainable economic growth.

Classification of Energy Resources

1. Based on Availability
a) Renewable Energy Resources
These resources are naturally replenished and can be used repeatedly.
Examples:
• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Hydropower
• Biomass Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Tidal Energy
Advantages:
• Environment-friendly
• Sustainable
• Reduces dependence on fossil fuels
b) Non-Renewable Energy Resources
These resources are available in limited quantities and cannot be replenished quickly.
Examples:
• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural Gas
• Nuclear Fuels (Uranium, Thorium)
Advantages:
 • High energy density
• Reliable energy supply
Disadvantages:
• Exhaustible
• Causes environmental pollution

2. Based on Conventional Usage

a) Conventional Energy Resources
These have been used for a long time and form the major energy supply.
Examples:
• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural Gas
• Hydroelectric Power
b) Non-Conventional Energy Resources
These are alternative sources developed to meet future energy demands.
Examples:
• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Biomass Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Tidal Energy

3. Based on Commercial Use

a) Commercial Energy Resources
These are bought and sold in the market.
Examples:
• Coal
• Petroleum
• Natural Gas
 • Electricity
b) Non-Commercial Energy Resources
These are generally used in rural areas and are not traded commercially.
Examples:
• Firewood
• Agricultural Waste
• Animal Dung

4. Based on Origin
a) Primary Energy Resources
Energy available directly from nature.
Examples:
• Coal
• Crude Oil
• Natural Gas
• Solar Radiation
• Wind
b) Secondary Energy Resources
Energy produced by converting primary energy.
Examples:
• Electricity
• Hydrogen
• Petrol
• Diesel

Factors Affecting Energy Resource Development

1. Availability of Natural Resources
The quantity and quality of energy resources determine their development potential.
2. Technological Advancement
Advanced technologies improve extraction, conversion, storage, and utilization of energy resources.
3. Economic Factors
High investment and operational costs may limit the development of certain energy projects.
4. Government Policies and Regulations
Government support, subsidies, and favorable policies encourage energy resource development.
5. Environmental Considerations
Environmental impacts and pollution control requirements influence energy projects.
6. Infrastructure Facilities
Adequate transportation, transmission networks, and storage facilities are necessary for energy
development.
7. Energy Demand
Increasing industrialization, urbanization, and population growth raise energy demand and promote
resource development.
8. Skilled Manpower
Availability of trained engineers, technicians, and researchers is essential for efficient energy
development.
9. Public Acceptance
Public awareness and support influence the implementation of energy projects.
10. Geographical and Climatic Conditions
The location and climate affect the suitability of renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, and
hydropower.

3. Availability of Renewable Energy Worldwide and in India

Introduction
Renewable energy refers to energy obtained from natural sources that are continuously replenished by
nature. These sources are sustainable, environmentally friendly, and play a crucial role in meeting
growing energy demands while reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Availability of Renewable Energy Worldwide

1. Solar Energy
• Solar energy is available throughout the world wherever sunlight is present.
• Regions near the equator receive higher solar radiation and have greater solar energy potential.
 • Countries such as the United States, China, India, Australia, and those in the Middle East have
significant solar resources.
2. Wind Energy
• Wind energy is abundant in coastal areas, plains, and offshore regions.
• Major wind energy-producing countries include China, the United States, Germany, Spain,
Denmark, and India.
3. Hydropower
• Hydropower is generated from flowing water in rivers and dams.
• Countries with abundant water resources such as China, Brazil, Canada, Norway, and Russia
have large hydropower potential.
4. Biomass Energy
• Biomass resources are available worldwide through agricultural residues, forestry waste, animal
waste, and organic matter.
• Biomass is widely used in developing countries for cooking and heating.
5. Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is available in regions with volcanic activity and high underground
temperatures.
• Countries with significant geothermal resources include Iceland, Indonesia, the Philippines, New
Zealand, and the United States.
6. Tidal and Ocean Energy
• Tidal and wave energy are available in coastal regions with strong ocean currents and tides.
• Countries such as the United Kingdom, France, Canada, South Korea, and Australia possess
significant ocean energy potential.

Availability of Renewable Energy in India

India has abundant renewable energy resources due to its favorable geographical and climatic
conditions.
1. Solar Energy
• India receives abundant sunshine for about 300 days per year.
• Average solar radiation ranges from 4–7 kWh/m²/day.
• States with high solar potential:
o Rajasthan
 o Gujarat
o Karnataka
o Andhra Pradesh
o Telangana
o Maharashtra
2. Wind Energy
• India has a long coastline of about 7,500 km, providing excellent wind energy potential.
• Major wind energy-producing states:
o Tamil Nadu
o Gujarat
o Karnataka
o Maharashtra
o Rajasthan
o Andhra Pradesh
3. Hydropower
• India has significant hydropower potential due to numerous rivers and mountainous regions.
• Major hydropower regions:
o Himachal Pradesh
o Uttarakhand
o Jammu & Kashmir
o Arunachal Pradesh
o Sikkim
4. Biomass Energy
• India is an agricultural country with abundant biomass resources.
• Sources include:
o Crop residues
o Bagasse from sugar industries
o Animal waste
o Forestry residues
5. Small Hydro Power
 • Small hydro projects are developed in hilly and rural regions.
• Suitable locations are found in the Himalayan and Western Ghats regions.
6. Geothermal Energy
• India has geothermal potential in:
o Puga Valley (Ladakh)
o Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)
o Cambay Basin (Gujarat)
o Tattapani (Chhattisgarh)
7. Tidal and Ocean Energy
• Tidal energy potential exists in:
o Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat)
o Gulf of Khambhat (Gujarat)
o Sundarbans (West Bengal)

Advantages of Renewable Energy

• Environment-friendly and clean.
• Reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
• Sustainable and inexhaustible.
• Enhances energy security.
• Generates employment opportunities.

4. Sun-Earth geometric relationship.

Introduction
The Sun–Earth geometric relationship describes the relative positions of the Sun and Earth and their
effect on the amount of solar radiation received at a particular location. Understanding this relationship
is important for the design and performance analysis of solar energy systems.

Important Terms in Sun–Earth Geometry

1. Latitude (φ)
• Latitude is the angular distance of a location north or south of the equator.
 • It is measured in degrees (°).
• Northern Hemisphere: Positive (+)
• Southern Hemisphere: Negative (−)
Example: Mysuru is approximately 12.3° N latitude.

2. Longitude (L)
• Longitude is the angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
• It is measured in degrees.

3. Declination Angle (δ)

• Declination is the angle between the Earth's equatorial plane and the line joining the centers of
the Earth and the Sun.
• It varies throughout the year due to Earth's revolution around the Sun.
Range:
• +23.45° (June 21)
• −23.45° (December 21)
360
𝛿 = 23.45∘ sin⁡ ( (284 + 𝑛))
365
Where:
• δ = Declination angle
• n = Day number of the year

4. Hour Angle (ω)

• Hour angle represents the angular displacement of the Sun east or west of the local meridian due
to Earth's rotation.
• It is zero at solar noon.
• Positive in the afternoon and negative in the morning.
𝜔 = 15∘ (Solar Time − 12)

5. Zenith Angle (θz)

• Zenith angle is the angle between the Sun's rays and the vertical direction at a location.
 • It determines the intensity of solar radiation received.

6. Solar Altitude Angle (α)

• Solar altitude angle is the angle between the Sun's rays and the horizontal plane.
Relationship:
𝛼 = 90∘ − 𝜃𝑧

7. Solar Azimuth Angle (γs)

• Solar azimuth angle is the horizontal angle between the projection of the Sun's rays and the south
direction.
• It indicates the Sun's position in the horizontal plane.

Earth's Motions Affecting Solar Radiation

1. Rotation of Earth
• Earth rotates about its axis once every 24 hours.
• Causes day and night.
• Responsible for the apparent daily movement of the Sun.
2. Revolution of Earth
• Earth revolves around the Sun once every 365.25 days.
• Causes seasonal changes.
• Changes the declination angle throughout the year.
3. Tilt of Earth's Axis
• Earth's axis is tilted by approximately 23.5°.
• Responsible for variation in day length and solar radiation intensity during different seasons.

Significance of Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship

1. Determines the amount of solar energy received at a location.
2. Helps in designing solar photovoltaic and solar thermal systems.
3. Assists in selecting the optimum tilt angle of solar collectors.
4. Predicts sunrise, sunset, and day length.
 5. Improves efficiency of solar energy utilization.

5. Layers of the Sun.

Introduction
The Sun is the primary source of energy for the Earth. It is a massive sphere of hot gases, mainly
hydrogen and helium, and consists of several layers. The energy produced in the Sun's core reaches the
Earth in the form of solar radiation. Understanding the structure of the Sun is important for studying
solar energy and its applications.

Layers of the Sun

1. Core
• The core is the innermost region of the Sun.
• It is the source of the Sun's energy.
• Nuclear fusion takes place here, where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium.
• Extremely high temperature of about 15 million °C.
• Produces enormous amounts of heat and light energy.
2. Radiative Zone
• Surrounds the core.
• Energy generated in the core is transferred outward through radiation.
• Photons travel slowly through this region due to repeated absorption and re-emission.
• Temperature ranges from about 7 million °C to 2 million °C.
3. Convective Zone
• Located above the radiative zone.
• Energy is transferred by convection currents.
• Hot gases rise upward while cooler gases sink downward.
• Responsible for the granulated appearance of the Sun's surface.
4. Photosphere
• The visible surface of the Sun.
• Most of the sunlight reaching Earth originates from this layer.
• Temperature is approximately 5,500°C to 6,000°C.
• Sunspots appear on the photosphere.
5. Chromosphere
• Lies above the photosphere.
• Appears as a reddish layer during a solar eclipse.
• Consists mainly of hydrogen gas.
• Temperature ranges from 6,000°C to 20,000°C.
6. Corona
• The outermost layer of the Sun.
• Extends millions of kilometers into space.
• Visible during a total solar eclipse as a bright halo.
• Temperature can exceed 1 million °C.
• Source of solar wind.

6. Factors affecting solar energy reaching Earth's surface.

Factors Affecting Solar Energy Reaching Earth's Surface
Introduction
Solar energy reaching the Earth's surface is not constant. As solar radiation travels through the
atmosphere, part of it is absorbed, reflected, and scattered before reaching the ground. Several
geographical, astronomical, and atmospheric factors influence the amount of solar energy received at a
particular location.

Factors Affecting Solar Energy Reaching Earth's Surface

1. Latitude of the Location
• The amount of solar radiation received depends on the latitude.
• Areas near the equator receive more direct sunlight throughout the year.
• Polar regions receive less solar energy because the Sun's rays strike at a lower angle.
2. Time of Day
• Solar energy is maximum at solar noon when the Sun is directly overhead.
• During morning and evening hours, solar radiation is lower because the Sun's rays travel a longer
path through the atmosphere.
3. Season of the Year
• Due to the Earth's revolution and axial tilt, the intensity of solar radiation varies with seasons.
 • Summer receives more solar energy than winter.
4. Length of Day
• Longer daylight hours provide more solar energy.
• Shorter days reduce the total solar radiation received.
5. Atmospheric Conditions
• Clouds, dust, smoke, and pollutants absorb and scatter solar radiation.
• Clear skies allow maximum solar energy to reach the Earth's surface.
6. Air Mass
• Air mass is the path length traveled by sunlight through the atmosphere.
• Greater air mass results in more absorption and scattering, reducing solar radiation.
7. Altitude of the Location
• Higher altitudes receive more solar radiation because the atmosphere is thinner.
• Mountain regions generally receive higher solar intensity than low-lying areas.
8. Cloud Cover
• Clouds reflect and absorb a significant portion of incoming solar radiation.
• Heavy cloud cover greatly reduces the amount of solar energy reaching the ground.
9. Atmospheric Absorption
• Certain atmospheric gases absorb solar radiation.
• Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
• Water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb portions of solar energy.
10. Scattering of Solar Radiation
• Dust particles, air molecules, and water droplets scatter sunlight.
• Scattering reduces direct solar radiation but increases diffuse radiation.
11. Surface Orientation and Tilt
• The angle at which sunlight strikes a surface affects the amount of energy absorbed.
• Properly tilted solar panels receive maximum solar radiation.
12. Shading by Obstacles
• Buildings, trees, hills, and other structures can block sunlight.
• Shading reduces the efficiency of solar energy systems.
Atmospheric Effects on Solar Radiation
When solar radiation enters the atmosphere:
• A portion is reflected back into space by clouds and the atmosphere.
• A portion is absorbed by atmospheric gases.
• A portion is scattered in different directions.
• The remaining radiation reaches the Earth's surface as direct and diffuse radiation.

Importance of Understanding These Factors

1. Helps in selecting suitable locations for solar power plants.
2. Improves the design and efficiency of solar energy systems.
3. Assists in estimating solar energy potential.
4. Helps optimize the tilt and orientation of solar collectors.
5. Increases the overall performance of solar power generation.

Repeated in Question Papers

1. Hour angle, Latitude angle, Declination angle, Solar azimuth angle.
Hour Angle, Latitude Angle, Declination Angle, and Solar Azimuth Angle
1. Hour Angle (ω)
Definition
Hour angle is the angular displacement of the Sun east or west of the local meridian due to the Earth's
rotation. It indicates the position of the Sun with respect to solar noon.
Characteristics
• At solar noon, hour angle = 0°.
• Morning: Hour angle is negative.
• Afternoon: Hour angle is positive.
• Earth rotates 15° per hour.
Formula
𝜔 = 15∘ (Solar Time − 12)
Importance
• Used to determine the Sun's position at any time of the day.
 • Essential for solar energy system design.

2. Latitude Angle (φ)

Definition
Latitude is the angular distance of a location north or south of the equator.
Characteristics
• Measured in degrees (°).
• Equator: 0°
• North Pole: +90°
• South Pole: −90°
Importance
• Determines the amount of solar radiation received.
• Used in calculating solar angles and collector tilt.
Example
• Mysuru: Approximately 12.3° N
• Bengaluru: Approximately 12.97° N

3. Declination Angle (δ)

Definition
Declination angle is the angle between the line joining the centers of the Earth and Sun and the Earth's
equatorial plane.
Characteristics
• Changes throughout the year due to Earth's revolution.
• Maximum value: +23.45° (around June 21)
• Minimum value: −23.45° (around December 21)
Formula
360
𝛿 = 23.45∘ sin⁡ ( (284 + 𝑛))
365
Where:
• δ = Declination angle
 • n = Day number of the year
Importance
• Determines seasonal variation in solar radiation.
• Used in solar energy calculations.

4. Solar Azimuth Angle (γs)

Definition
Solar azimuth angle is the horizontal angle between the projection of the Sun's rays on the horizontal
plane and the reference south direction.
Characteristics
• Indicates the Sun's direction in the horizontal plane.
• Changes continuously throughout the day.
• Used to orient solar collectors and solar panels.
Importance
• Helps determine the optimum direction of solar panels.
• Improves solar energy collection efficiency.

Summary Table

Angle Symbol Definition

Hour Angle ω Angular displacement of the Sun from solar noon

Latitude Angle φ Angular distance of a location from the equator

Declination Angle δ Angle between Earth–Sun line and equatorial plane

Solar Azimuth Angle γs Horizontal angle indicating Sun's direction

2. Basic Rankine cycle of electricity generation.
Introduction
The Rankine cycle is the basic thermodynamic cycle used in steam power plants for electricity
generation. It converts heat energy into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy. Most
thermal power plants, including coal-fired, nuclear, biomass, and solar thermal plants, operate on the
Rankine cycle.

Components of the Rankine Cycle

1. Boiler
• Water is heated in the boiler using fuel combustion or another heat source.
• Water converts into high-pressure, high-temperature steam.
2. Steam Turbine
• The steam expands through the turbine.
• Thermal energy of steam is converted into mechanical energy.
• The turbine shaft rotates and drives the generator.
3. Condenser
• Exhaust steam from the turbine enters the condenser.
• Steam is cooled and converted back into water.
4. Feed Water Pump
• The pump increases the pressure of the condensed water.
• Water is sent back to the boiler, completing the cycle.

Basic Rankine Cycle Process

Process 1 → 2: Pumping
• Condensed water is pumped from low pressure to high pressure.
• Small amount of work is supplied to the pump.
Process 2 → 3: Heat Addition in Boiler
• High-pressure water is heated in the boiler.
• Water converts into high-pressure steam.
Process 3 → 4: Expansion in Turbine
• Steam expands through the turbine.
• Produces mechanical work.
Process 4 → 1: Condensation
• Steam releases heat in the condenser.
• Converts back into water.
Schematic Diagram of Rankine Cycle
Boiler
┌───────────┐
│ │
└─────┬─────┘
│ Steam
▼
┌───────────┐
│ Turbine │
└─────┬─────┘
│
▼
┌───────────┐
│ Condenser │
└─────┬─────┘
│ Water
▼
┌───────────┐
│ Pump │
└─────┬─────┘
│
└────────► Boiler

Rankine Cycle on T–S Diagram

Temperature (T)
↑
│ 3
│ ●
│ /\
│ / \
│ / \
│● ●
│2 4
│\ /
│ \ /
│ \ /
│ ●
│ 1
└────────────→ Entropy (S)
• 1 → 2 : Pumping
• 2 → 3 : Heat addition
• 3 → 4 : Expansion
• 4 → 1 : Condensation
Advantages of Rankine Cycle
1. Simple and reliable operation.
2. Suitable for large-scale power generation.
3. High efficiency when combined with modern improvements.
4. Can use various heat sources such as coal, nuclear fuel, biomass, and solar thermal energy.
5. Continuous production of electricity.

Applications
• Coal-fired thermal power plants
• Nuclear power plants
• Biomass power plants
• Concentrated solar thermal power plants
• Industrial steam power systems