1BESC204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech.

Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

1BESC204D - INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE – 3 –Engineering Materials

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIAL:

Engineering materials are defined as solid substances which are used manufactured and
used for various engineering applications

There are various materials available and the choice of a particular material for a specific
application depends on the set of properties possessed by the material. For example, cast iron is a
strong material in compression, but is weak in tension and also very brittle in nature.

Steel is almost equally strong in tension and compression, is ductile in nature, possess
high strength-to-weight ratio and is comparatively cheaper. Hence steel is considered the best choice
for building structures and similar such parts. On the other hand, cast iron has a good fluidity leading to
good castability characteristics, excellent machinability and wear resistance. Also it retains its strength
at high temperatures and does not corrode as easily as steel.

METALS:

All metals (or alloys ) used in engineering applications can be classified into categories,
viz., ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron as the chief constituent, while non-ferrous
metals do not contain iron. The commonly used ferrous and non-ferrous metals are listed in below
Table (a).

[Link]. Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

1. Pig iron Copper and its alloys
Brass (alloy of copper and zinc)
Bronze (alloy of copper and tin)
2. Wrought iron Aluminum and its alloys
3. Cast iron Lead and its alloys
- Gray cast iron
- White cast iron
- Malleable cast iron
- Spheroidal or Nodular or Ductile
cast iron
- Chilled cast iron, etc.,
4. Steel Nickel and its alloys
- Carbon steels
* Low carbon steel
* Medium carbon steel
* High carbon steel
- Alloy steels
- Tool steels
- Stainless steels, etc.

CAST IRON

Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron in a cupola furnace by making certain changes to its
composition while in the molten state The principal allowing elements are carbon and silicon

Cast iron contains about 90 to 92% iron, 2 to 4.5% carbons, and 1 to 3% silicon, and smaller
amounts of sulphur, ma and phosphorous. With increasing carbon contents, the metal tends to become

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more brittle (poor ductility) thereby avoiding it to be forged, rolled, or, extruded Since casting is the
only suitable process for shaping this kind of metal, is k cast iron. Cast iron has low melting point, good
fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance. It is
classified into various forms based on the carbon content present in its microstructure A few of them
are briefed as follows

GRAY CAST IRON

Gray cast iron or simply gray iron is produced when the motte pig iron in the mould is allowed to
cool and solidify slowly. Part of the carbon separates out in flakes in the form of graphite but remains
physically mixed in the iron
Gray iron is so named because its freshly fractured surface has a gray appearance. It contains
approximately 32-15% carbon. 13-23% silicon, along with sulphur, phosphorus, & manganese in small
amounts Gray cast iron possess excellent castability, machinability, and vibration damping
characteristics, is wear resistant, aids in lubrication of wrn out surfaces, however the high carbon
content makes it more brittle and have low tensile strength and shock resistance

Applications
Typical applications of gray cast iron include automotive engine blocks, gears, flywheels, brake
discs and drums, frames and body machine base, etc. Gray iron serves well in machine tool
applications because of its good fatigue resistance.

WHITE CAST IRON

White cast iron is produced by chilling (cooling rapidly) selected areas of a casting in the mould,
this prevents graphitic carbon from precipitating out. The carbon remains distributed throughout the
iron as iron carbide (or cementite the hardest constituent). White iron contains approximately 1.8-3.6%
carbon, 0.5- 2.0% silicon, along with sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese in small amounts. The
presence of iron carbide makes white cast irons extremely hard, brittle, and wear resistant. Hence it
cannot be machined easily. It has high tensile strength and low compressive strength
Applications

White cast irons are primarily used for applications requiring wear and abrasion resistance such
as mill liners, hot-blasting nozzles and similar such components. Other uses include railroad brake
shoes, car wheels, sprockets, rolling mill rolls, clay mixing and brick making equipment, crushers,
pulverizers, etc.

MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable cast iron is produced by annealing- a heat treatment process, in order to transform
iron carbide present in white cast iron to graphite. In the annealing process, white cast iron is heated to
about 900°C for long periods of time in the presence of iron oxide. Upon cooling, the combined carbon
separates into nodules of free graphite.
Malleable cast iron contains approximately 2.0-3.0 % carbon, 0.6-1.3% silicon, along with
sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese in small amounts. The properties of malleable cast iron are
opposite from those of white iron from which it is derived. Rather than being hard and brittle, it is
malleable and can be easily machined. In addition, the material possesses desirable properties of
castability, moderate strength, toughness, corrosion resistant, and shock resistant

Applications

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Malleable cast irons are used for manufacturing connecting rods and universal joint yokes,
transmission gears, differential cases, and certain gears, compressor, crankshafts and hubs, flanges,
pipe fittings and valve parts for railroad, marine and other heavy-duty applications

Spheroidal or Nodular or Ductile o Cast Iron

Spheroidal graphite iron, also termed nodular iron or ductile iron is obtained by adding
magnesium to molten iron before pouring the metal into moulds. This causes the graphite in the cast
iron to form nodules or small spheres like, rather than flakes as is in the case of gray cast iron. The
magnesium reacts with the sulphur and oxygen in the molten iron resulting in the precipitation of
carbon in the form of small spheres. Hence the name spheroidal graphite iron.

S.G. iron contains approximately 3.2-4.2% carbon, 1.1-3.5% silicon, along with sulphur,
phosphorus, and manganese in small amounts. The graphite spheres formed during solidification
results in the improvement in strength, ductility, stiffness, and shock resistance of the metal. Good
fluidity, castability, machinability and wear resistance are the other favourable properties of s.g. iron.

Applications
S.G. iron is used in applications such as crankshafts, rolls, punches, dies used in sheet metal
work, because of its good machinability, shock resistance and strength; in heavy-duty gears because of
its high yield strength and wear resistance; and in automobile door hinges because of its ductility.

STEELS :

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content being less than 2% . In addition, various
alloying elements like sulphur, phosphorous, manganese, nickel, chromium, copper, etc., are added in
small proportions to obtain the desired properties in steel.

Steel classification

Steels based on the chemical compositions are classified into four major groups. They are:

1) Carbon steels (Plain carbon steels)

 Mild steel or Low carbon steel

 Medium carbon steel
 High carbon steel
 Ultra high carbon steel

2) Alloy steels

 High-strength low-alloy steels

 Medium alloy nickel chromium steels
 Maraging steels
 Manganese steels

3) Stainless steels

 Austenitic steels.
 Ferrite steels

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 Martensitic steels
 Duplex steel
 Precipitation hardened (PH) steels

4) Tool steels

 Cold work tool steels

 Shock resisting tool steels
 High speed tool steels
 Special purpose tool steels

TOOL STEELS:

Tool steels are special class of steels that are primarily used to make tools in manufacturing
process as well as for machining metals, wood and plastics . Tool steels are capable of withstanding
high loads and remains stable at elevated temperatures. Of all the different types of tool steels
available, high speed steel (HSS) is widely used in manufacturing applications.

HIGH SPEED STEEL(HSS)

High speed steels (HSS) are so called because they are capable of cutting at speeds, about four
times faster than the carbon steel tools, which was once the only cutting tool available for metal cutting
operations. The details of HSS are discussed in brief as follows:

Composition HSS is an alloy steel containing tungsten, chromium, and vanadium in suitable
proportions. Cobalt is sometimes added to improve hot hardness. There are two basic types of high
speed steels: T-type HSS, in which tungsten is the principal alloying element with composition ranging
from 12-18%, and M-type HSS, in which molybdenum is the principal alloying element with composition
ranging from 4 – 9 %,

Under T-type category, 18-4-1 HSS is in common use, containing 18% tungsten, 4%
chromium, and 1% vanadium, in addition to a carbon content of 0.7%.

Under M-type category, 6-6-4-2 HSS is in common use, containing 6% molybdenum, 6%

tungsten, 4% chromium, and 2% vanadium, in addition to a carbon content of 0.6%.

PROPERTIES:

High speed steels have excellent hardenability and can retain their hardness up to about 600 C .
They are relatively tough and moderately priced. They can be shaped easily.

APPLICATIONS:

As such HSS are commonly used for manufacturing drill bits, reamers, counter bore, milling
cutters and many single point cutting tools.

STAINLESS STEELS :

Stainless steel is defined as iron-carbon alloy with chromium content ranging from 11.5 % to
25% depending on the properties desired. Chromium helps to resist corrosion in steels. Stainless steel
gets its name because it does not corrode or stain easily compared to other types of steels. This
resistance to attack is due to the naturally occurring chromium- rich oxide film formed on the surface of

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the steel. The film is rapidly self-repairing in the presence of oxygen, and damage by abrasion, cutting
or machining.

APPLICATIONS:

Stainless steels are classified into different types based on the percentage of chromium content
and other alloying elements added. A few applications of these materials include: manufacture of
kitchen sinks, food processing equipment, architectural applications, chemical plant and equipments ,
computer floppy disk shutters, computer keyboard key springs, knife blades, surgical instruments,
shafts, spindles, marine applications, desalination plant, heat exchangers, petrochemical plants etc.

CARBON STEELS

Carbon steels, also called plain carbon steels is a combination of two elements iron and carbon,
with iron forming the major component, and carbon the alloying element. Various other alloying
elements like copper, manganese, phosphorus, silicon and sulphur are added in small quantities to
obtain favourable properties. Apart from the above elements, chromium vanadium, nickel,
molybdenum are also added in small quantities to obtain the desired effect in the finished product
Machine tool and cutting tool applications make use of carbon steels to a greater extent compare to
other materials Based. on the carbon content, carbon steels are commly classified as

 Low carbon steel (0.03 – 0.25%C)

 Medium carbon steel (0.25 – 0.59% C)
 High carbon steel (0.60 – 1%C)
 Ultra high carbon steel (1-2% C)

LOW CARBON STEEL (MILD STEEL)

Low carbon steel is the most common type of carbon steel that is produced in large quantities
for a wide variety of applications It Contains approximately 0.03 0.25% carbon It is malleable and
ductile due to low carbon content. possess good machinability and formability. Although strength,
surface hardness, and wear resistance are not appreciable, they can be improved through heat
treatment process

Low carbon steels are used for making valves, small gears & forgings, screws, nails, automotive body
components etc.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Medium carbon steel used contains approximately 0.25-0.59% carbon. It is stronger, but less
tougher than low carbon steels, possess good wear resistance and are often heat-treated to have a
good balance of strength and ductility

Medium carbon steels are used in making large parts, forgings, automotive and machined
components Bolts, rods crankshafts, axles, and other components that require higher hardness and
wear resistance are made from this material

HIGH CARBON STEEL

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High carbon steel contains approximately 0.61% carbon. Its extremely strong & more britte due
to increased carbon content. It shows better response to heat treatment, and exhibits longer service
life. Also it has a high wear resistance du to their superior surface hardness

High carbon steel is used for springs, high-strength wires, hacksaw blades, cold chisels,
hammers, her blades punches. taps drills, automatic clutch dises etc

ALUMINUM & ITS ALLOYS:

Aluminum is a silverish white non-ferrous metal extracted from Bauxite mineral. A few
characteristics of aluminum alloy are listed briefly below.

 Relatively light metal

 Easily machinable and can have a wide variety of surface finishes
 Highly reflective of heat and light
 Good conductor of heat and electricity & Strong resistance to corrosion
 It can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, hammered, extruded, and forged to any shape.
 Aluminum can also be riveted, welded, brazed or resin bonded to other materials.

However, pure aluminum is weak, very ductile material, and hence cannot be used in high-
strength application. When it is alloying with other metals like copper, silicon, magnesium, and tin, it
provides useful properties for wide applications.

APPLICATIONS:

Being light in weight, aluminum makes itself ideal for construction of parts in aircraft,
automotive vehicles, spacecrafts, marine, and similar such application areas, where weight is a
negative factor. Electrical applications include: overhead cable, electric wires, winding of motorts,
generators, transformers, ets. High reflectivity makes aluminum ideal for mirrors, reflectors and heat
resistant clothing for fire fighting. Aluminum is also used widely for various household applications.

COPPER & ITS ALLOYS

Copper one of the most important con-ferrous metal and is the first metal discovered by man. It
malleable, corrosion and a good conductor of heat and electricity (second only to silver in electrical
conductivity) However, pure copper is very ductile and relatively weak. The tensile strength and
hardness can be increased by metal working but this results in the decrease in its ductility The
properties of copper can be improved by adding alloying elements Two important copper alloys of
engineering Interest are Reus (alloy of copper and zinc) and Bronze (alloys of copper and elements
other than zinc)

BRASS

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, the amount of zinc varying from 5-45% to create a range of
brasses each with unique properties Small amounts of other elements like lead in silicon, etc, can be
added to brass to modify its properties so that the resulting material is fit for a given purpose. A few
important properties of brass are listed as follows

 Good strength, ductility machinability, and formability

 Good electrical and thermal conductivities

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 Good wear and corrosion resistance

 Good spark resistance Brasses do not spark & hence can be used in hazardous environments
 Non-magnetic

Applications

Used in the manufacture of nuts, bolts, threaded parts, taps, injectors, valve bodies, valve
fittings, condensers and treat exchangers tubes, radiation cores, pump bodies, pump fittings, etc.

BRONZE

Bronze is a broad term used to define an alloy of copper and elements other than zinc. The
simplest bronze is copper (88% mixed with small amounts of tin (not more than 11%), Various alloying
elements like phosphorous lead, etc are added in small proportions to obtain favourable properties.
Other than tin, elements like aluminum, silicon, or beryllium are also alloyed with copper to form
different types of bronzes

Bronzes are soft, corrosion resistant; possess better hardness and fatigue properties, and
conducts heat and electricity better than most steels. However, its cost is high

Applications

Bronze can be rolled into wires, rods and sheets due to good ductility and malleability. They are
used for springs, bellows. Electrical contacts, bushes, clutch discs, marine pumps, condenser tubes,
pump casings, valve parts, etc.

SMART MATERIALS
Smart materials are designed materials having one or more properties that can be significantly
changed in a controlled fashion by means of external stimuli, such as stress, temperature, moisture,
pH, electric or magnetic fields. The change in properties is reversible and can be repeated any number
of times. For example, a particular plastic material which is an insulator at normal conditions can be
made to behave as a conductor by applying a compressive force. Upon removal of the force, the plastic
material returns to its insulating state. A photosensitive glass darkens when exposed to sunlight and
returns back to its initial state when protected from sunlight. Some materials change colour in response
to an electric stimulus. Similarly there are a wide range of materials, each offering different properties
under different circumstances. Such materials are designated as smart materials, because the
response they produce in proportion to a stimulus acts as a feedback or a signal, allowing decisions to
be taken accordingly. For example, an aeroplane might have wings made from a smart material that

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changes colour as soon as tiny cracks start to develop; a wound dressing that changes its colour when
infection develops, & so on. Smart materials have the potential to change technology & design
principles completely.
Types of Smart Materials
1) Piezoelectric materials
2) Electro-rheostatic & Magneto-rheostatic materials
3) Quantum Tunneling Composites (QTC)
4) Color Change Materials, and
5) Shape memory alloys

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
It have two unique properties which are interrelated. When a piezoelectric material is deformed
by applying stress, it gives off a small electrical discharge. Alternately, when an electrical current is
passed through a piezoelectric material it experiences a significant deformation. It is for this property,
piezoelectric materials are most widely used as sensors in different environments. Common
piezoelectric materials include ceramic materials like Lead zirconium titanate Barium titanate, lead
zirconate titanate, lead zirconate, potassium niobate, etc, and polymer material like polyvinylidene
fluoride.
INDUSTRY APPLICATION
used as Air bag sensor, air flow sensor, audible alarms, fuel atomizer, keyless door
Automotive
entry. seat belt buzzers, knock sensors, etc.
Computer Used as actuators for Disc drives, dot-matrix/inkjet printing heads
Used as depth finders, fish finders, humidifiers, jewellery cleaners, musical
Consumer instrument speakers found in cell phones and musical greeting cards, telephones
Cigarette lighters
Used in foetal heart monitors, ultrasonic imaging, ultrasonic cataract removal
Medical
devices, cochlear implants etc.
Military Used in Depth sounders, guidance systems, hydrophones, sonar
Used as actuators in ultrasonic cleaning, ultrasonic welding, motors in environments
Manufacturing
strong magnetic fields or cryogenic temperatures.
Electro-rheostatic & Magneto-rheostatic (MR FLUID) Materials
Electro-rheostatic (ER) materials are fluids, which can experience a dramatic change in their
viscosity, when exposed to ant electric field. ER fluids can be as simple as milk chocolate or cornstarch
and oil, and are developed for use in clutches and valves, as well as engine mounts designed to reduce
noise and vibration in vehicles.

Magneto-rheostatic (MR) materials are fluids, which experience a viscosity change when
exposed to a magnetic field. The most common form of MR fluid consists of tiny iron particles
suspended in oil. MR fluids are being developed for use in car shocks, damping washing machine
vibration, prosthetic limbs, exercise equipment, and surface polishing of machine parts. In both types of
materials, the effect of change in viscosity can be completely reversed just as quickly when the
respective electric/magnetic field is removed.

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

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Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are a unique class of metal alloys which exhibit two very unique
properties: shuple memory effect, based on change in temperature, and pseudo-elasticity (or super
elasticity), based on change in internal stress

Shape memory effect

When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state, the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those
shapes until heated above the transition temperature of the alloy Upon heating, the metal changes to
its original shape When the metal cools it will remain in the original shape, until deformed again. In
other words, the alloy appears to have a memory of returning to its original shape, and this is called the
shape memory effect

Pseudo-elasticity or Super-elasticity
Shape memory alloys exhibit super-elasticity (or pseudo-elasticity), te, a mechanical type of shape
memory. In this case, a force induces considerable deformation in the alloy material, but when the
force is removed, the material automatically recovers its original shape without the need for heating,
Pseudo-elasticity effect is observed when alloys are strained just above their transition temperature.
Among the various shape memory alloys (Nickel – Titanium) referred as Nitinol is widely used for
commercial applications

Application of Shape Memory Alloys

Automotive:

 Automotive thermostats, vibration dampers, cold start vehicle actuators, etc.

Medical:

 Used in fixed orthodontic treatment for wide dental movements, filter clots that travel inside the
bloodstream, healing process of broken and fractured bones, neuromuscular rehabilitation like
spastic limb repositioning, or residual voluntary movement of neurological members, Arterial
clips, key-hole surgery instruments, etc.

Aircraft:

 Used in vibration dampers to dissipate energy and dampen vibrations for launch vehicles and
commercial jet engines; as actuators in jet engines to reduce weight and boost efficiency; in ball
bearings and landing gear for shock applications, etc.

Others

Used in robot actuators to mimic the smooth movement of human muscles, solar actuators, electrical
circuit breakers, fiber optic coupling, mobile phone antennas, satellite antenna deployment, spectacle
frames, Intraocular lens mount, structural applications susceptible to seismic activity, column-
foundation bolted joints, slender structures for control of buckling and vibrations, etc.

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COMPOSITE:
A composite materials can be defined as a combination of two or more constitute materials
having different Physical or chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct on a
microscopic or macroscopic each other, although they act together to form a single material.

A composite material possesses properties that are superior to the individual materials is simple
example of a composite is the plywood it type of manmade plywood is a good product manufactured
out of many sheets of food veneer press together and glued. when layers like this output together it
produces a very sturdy and durable wood.

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Composite are made up of just two materials representing as Matrix (binder) and reinforcement
(dispersed phase). the Matrix surrounds and binds together a cluster of fiber particles or fragments of a
s much stronger material called the reinforcement the reinforcement carries loads along the length of
the fiber to provide strength and stiffness to the composite while the matrix holds the fibers together
and keep them aligned in a free determined direction the following examples illustrate the matrix and
the reinforcement phase and how they combination result in the better properties.

• consider concrete which is made up of cement sand and stone gravel the outer cement forms the
matrix while sand/gravel particles forms the reinforcement cement is weak and brittle hence it is
strengthened by adding particulates in the form of sand and stones.

• Another example is the reinforced concrete where in concrete is reinforced with steel structural
members like beams and columns used in buildings constructions are made from rainforest concrete
this is because concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension have a steel is equally strongly in
both tension and temperature for this reason concrete is reinforced by adding Steel rods to concrete
mixture as shown in the

• A typical radial car rubber tyre , It is a combination of a rubber compound which forms the matrix and
steel as the reinforcement Steel in the form of belts provides punches resistance and helps the tyre
stay flat so that it makes the best contact with the road the rubber acts as a matrix holding the Steel
reinforcement in place.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES:
Composite materials are commonly classified at two different levels:
1) With respect to Matrix constitute

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• polymer matrix composite- matrix is made from a polymer resin material

• metal Matrix composite - matrix is made from a metal or alloy.
• ceramic matrix composite - matrix is made from a ceramic material
2) With respect to reinforced constituent
• fiber rainforest composite - reinforcement if in the form of fiber (thread like structure).
• particle (particulate) reinforced composite - reinforcement is in the form of small particles.
• laminated composite - reinforcement consists of layers of materials held together .

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE (MMC):

Composite classified as metal matrix composite when the matrix is made from a metal or alloy
the reinforcement material is usually in the form of fiber or small size the particle particulates made
from ceramic or metallic materials.
Most metals and alloys can be used as mattresses however only light metals are responsive with
their low density proving an advantage titanium, aluminum and magnesium are the popular Matrix
materials particularly useful for aircraft applications high strength fracture toughness and stiffness and
low coefficient of thermal expansions are a few favourable properties of metal matrix composites have
ever the hide density high melting points and expensive manufacturing as compared to PMC's are few
disadvantage of this type.
MMCs are used for manufacturing automotive part like Pistons , push rods, break components ,
turbine engine components like fan blades , shaft electrical and electronic components etc.

FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITE:

Composite or classified as fiber reinforced composite when the reinforcement added is in the
form of fibers. A fiber is a slender , elongated thread like structure characterised by length and
diameter/ thickness the most common type of fibers used are glass fiber, carbon fiber and
aramid(Kevlar) fibers.

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Fiber are generally circular in cross section but can also be in the form of tabular rectangle or
hexagonal the diameter of the fiber ranges from 0.0001 inch to about 0.005 inch depending on the
material.

Fiber reinforced composite are can be for the divided based on discontinuous or continuous type
of fibres continuous fiber reinforced composite contain fiber reinforcement having lens much greater
than there cross sectional dimensions the on the other and a composite is considered to be a
discontinuous fiber or short fiber composite if it is properties very sweet fiber length and this
continuous fibers can also be randomly oriented most practical composite that are being developed for
engineering application contain discontinuous fibers.

Most of the fiber reinforced composite contain polymers as Matrix material they are used in the
manufacture of doors, windows, bath tubs, boats ,yachts, sporting goods ,pipes ,tanks and vessels and
many internal part of rail ,automotive and aerospace applications.

ADVANTAGES :
a) posses high strength to weight ratio.
b) high resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation
c) durable - long service life
d) excellent structural damping features
e) composites are dimensionally stable
f) to greater reliability there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
g) directional trailering capabilities to meet the design requirements the fiber pattern can be laid in
manner that will trailer the structure to efficiently sustain the applied loads
h) properties of composite materials are anisotropic that is properties depends on the direction of the
applied force/ load for example metals for example have equal strength in all direction (isotropic).but
composite can be engineered and designed to have strength in and specific direction
i) composites offer improved torsional stiffness
j) manufacture and assembly are simplified because of bad integration joint and fastener reduction
thereby reducing cost
k) Close tolerance can be achieved without machining.
l) improved friction and wear properties.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITES
a) High cost of raw material fabrication
b) transfer properties in a composite material maybe weak
c) Reuse and disposal may be difficult

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d) repair introduce new problems as the constituent material required refrigerated transport and
storage and have limited self life
e) composite do not have arrive high combination of strength and fracture toughness compared to
metals
f) mechanical characterization of a composition structure is more complex than that of a meeting
structure and like metals most composite materials are not a profit that is there properties are not the
same in all the directions there for the required more material parameters in the case of monolithic
material such as Steel one requires only four stiffness and strength constants such complexity makes
structural analysis computationally and experimentally more complicated and intensive.

APPLICATION OF COMPOSITES:
A few major application of composites in various fields are list below .
• Aircraft - router blades fins, rudders, wing body, fuel tanks , propeller blades, helicopter , canopies
radomes ,fairings ,engine Cowlings, landing gear doors, floor panels, fan ducts, interior parts like
overhead bins, slide wall panel, ceilings, partitions, cargo floor board liners etc.
• Space craft- rocket motor chasings ,rotor blades, heat shield and nozzles, panel doors, structure
trust elements, fuel tanks, turbines and combustions chamber parts high grain antenna beam etc.
• Marine- propeller veins ,fans and blowers ,condenser shells, valves and strainers, gear cases, small
boats helps etc.
• Automobiles- combustion engine components, disc breakers, break parts, dry soft components,
steering wheels, bumpers, doors and roof linings,, radiator tanks and supports, indicator lamp Shields
etc.
• Construction industries- doors, door Hinges, window frames, paneling, water tanks,
furniture ,interiors, sanitary ware, pipes, kitchen sinks, partitions ,ceilings, wall panels ,long span roof
structures, bridge structural components etc.
• Electrical/electronics- powerline insulators, switch gear frames,, parabolic antenna, street light
canopies, ladders, insulation brackets, junction boxes, circuit breaker components, brush holders, fuse
blocks, knobs, fan regulator cover, metal covers, electricity utility poles, circuit boards etc.
• Medical- artificial part made from composite to replace lost arms and legs, teeth, optical lenses,
spinal braces, crutches, wheel chairs etc.
• Sports- drumsticks ,tennis rackets ,ice hockey sticks, snowboards ,golf rods, archery equipment,
bicycle frames, raising boards, sky poles, canoes, protective sport wear, etc.
• Consumer products- washing machine parts, camera parts, wrist watch components, household
mixed casings, refrigerator and air conditioner components, chairs, tables, chimney duck parts etc.

Prof. Rajesh, / Asst. Prof – Mech. Engg. SSRCE – Anekal Page | 14