1BESC204D – Intro. to Mechanical Engg. Dept. of Mech.

Engg, SSCE, Anekal Module - I

1BESC204D - INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE – 4

MACHINING
A product or part can be manufactured by various processes like casting,
forging, machining etc. Machining is an operation that can be carried out manually or
by machine, which involves removal of excess material from the raw material so as to
get the required shape and size. So any machine involved in metal cutting is known as
a ‘Machine tools’ and the process is called ‘Machining’.

MACHINE TOOL
A machine tool may be defined as a power driven machine to produce a
product by removing the excess material using a cutting tool”. The excess material
removed is called as chips. Some of the important machine tools are lathe, drilling
machine, milling machine, grinding machine, shaper etc.

Lathe :-A Lathe is a machine tool employed generally to produce circular object. It
is said to the mother of all machine tools, generally used to perform on other
machine tool like grinding shaping milling can be performed

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING;

A lathe, basically a turning machine works on the principle that a cutting tool
can remove material in the form of chips from the rotating work pieces to produce
circular objects. This is accomplished in a lathe which holds the work pieces rigidly
and rotates them at high speeds while a cutting tool is moved against it.

LATHE SPECIFICATION

1. Maximum diameter of the work piece that can be revolved over the lathe bed.
Instead of this sometimes, the height of the centres above the lathe bed is also

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specified. One of these specifications is given by the manufacturers; however both

of them are loosely called as "Swing of the lathe".
2. The Maximum diameter and the width of the workpiece that can swing when the
lathe has a gap bed.
3. The maximum length of the workpiece that can be mounted between the centres.
4. Overall length of the bed. It is the total length of the lathe itself.

Major parts of a Lathe

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tail stock
4. Carriage assembly
5. Feed rod
6. Lead screw

BED – the bed is the foundation of the lathe and supports all other parts. The head
stock and tail stock are mounted on the inner guide ways, while the carriage
assembly is mounted on the outer guide ways of the bed.

HEAD STOCK – it is located on the left side over the bed. It comprises of the main
drive for different speeds. The main spindle called the live centre projects out it
holds the work piece and rotates the work piece at various speeds.

TAIL STOCK – it is a movable part mounted on the right side of the lathe bed. It
carries the dead center in it. The main functions are –[Link] support the free end of
the work piece [Link] hold tools like drill bit, reamers, taps etc.

CARRIAGE ASSEMBLY – it guides over the outer guide ways of the lathe bed. This
assembly holds the cutting tool and controls the cutting process. It consists of
saddle, cross slide, compound rest, tool post and apron.

SADDLE – It is a H – shaped casting sliding over the guide ways and supports the
cross slide, compound rest and the tool post.

CROSS SLIDE – it is mounted on the saddle. This enables the cutting tool to move
perpendicular to the lathe axis (lateral feed), so as to give the required depth to
thework piece.

COMPOUND REST – it is mounted on the cross slide and supports the tool post. It
has a circular base which can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane. It is
used in taper turning operation.

TOOL POST – it is mounted on the compound rest and holds the cutting tool firmly
during cutting process.

APRON – this is the area below the saddle, which houses the levers, hand
wheels, mechanism for moment of the carriage assembly.

FEED ROD – it is a long rod in front of the lathe bed and gives longitudinal
movement for the carriage for all its operations expect thread cutting.

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LEAD SCREW – it is a long screw with square threads on it mounted front of the
lathe bed. It gives the automatic feed to the carriage during the thread cutting
operation.

OPERATION ON LATHE

PLAIN TURNING (TURNING)

The work piece is supported between the two centers which permit the
rotation of the work piece. The cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the work
piece to a given depth of cut, and is then moved parallel to the axis of the work piece.
“This method of machining operation in which the work piece is reduced to a
cylindrical section of required diameter is called ‘turning’”.

FACING

This operation on lathe is used to produce either flat surface or shoulders at the
end of the work piece and used to reduce the Length of the work piece. The work
piece is held rigidly in the chuck. The cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of
the lathe from the outer edge of the work piece towards the center.

KNURLING:
It is an operation used to emboss serrated surface on work piece using a knurling
tool. It is used to produce straight, angled or diamond pattern on the work piece
mainly for gripping purpose. The knurling tool is set in the tool post such that upper
and lower rollers of the knurl head touches the surface of the work piece. The spindle
speed is kept 60 to 80 rpm. The feed of the knurl tool is 0.38 to 0.76 mm/rev

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MILLING

Milling is a metal removal process in which the work piece is fed into a
revolving cutting tool, thereby removing excess material. The cutting tool is known
as milling cutter which is a multipoint cutting tool. Milling Machine – It is a power
operated machine tool in which the work piece mounted on the table is fed against
the milling cutter to get the required shape.

PRINCIPLE OF MILLING –

In milling, the work piece is rigidly held on table and is slowly fed into the uniformly
rotating cutter to get the required shape.
The work piece can be fed in either direction of the rotating cutter.
(a) Up milling (conventional)
(b) Down milling (climb)

UP MILLING (CONVENTIONAL)

The work piece is fed opposite to the direction of the rotating cutter. Chips are
progressively thicker. Since the cutting forces are directed upwards it tends to lift the
work piece. Gives poor surface finish. Used for hard materials.

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DOWN MILLING (CLIMB)

The work piece in the direction of the rotating cutter. Chips are progressively
thinner. Cutting forces are directed downwards, which keep the work piece
pressed to the table. Gives good surface finish. Used for soft materials and
finishing operations.

UP MILLING DOWN MILLING

Work piece fed opp. to the cutter Work piece fed in same direction to the
rotation cutter rotation
Chip Thickness – Min at cut beginning & Chip Thickness – Max at cut beginning &
Max at cut end. Min at cut end.
Cutting force directed upwards tends to Cutting force directed downward tends
lift the work piece. Hence greater to keep the work piece firmly. Hence
clamping force is required lesser clamping force is required
No good surface finish Good surface finish

CLASSIFICATION OF MILTING MACHINE

The milling machines are broadly classified into:

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[Link] or Horizontal Type of Milling Machine

2. Vertical Milling Machine
[Link] Milling Machine
4. Planer Type Milling Machine
5. Profile Cutting Milling Machine

HORIZONTAL SPINDLE COLUMN & KNEE MILLING MACHINE:

It is one of the most popular type of milling machine, and is commonly called
horizontal milling machine, because of the horizontal position of the spindle. This
type of machine is used to cut grooves, slots, keyways, gear teeth etc. The machine
consists of the following parts:
a) Base is usually a strong and a hollow part, which forms the foundation of the
machine and upon which all the other parts are mounted. The base also serves as a
sump for the cutting fluid. A pump and filtration system can be installed in the base.
The hole provided in the center of the base, houses the support for the elevating
screw that raises and lowers the knee.
b) Column is a vertical hollow casting and is usually combined with the base to
form a single casting. The column houses the spindle and bearings as well as the
drive units (gears, clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power
from the electric motor to the spindle at desired speeds. The front face of the
vertical column is provided with a square or dovetail type guideways on which the
knee slides up and down.
c) Spindle is a hollow shaft supported by the column with suitable bearings that
absorb both radial and thrust loads. The spindle is made hollow and tapered inside
to accept standard arbors. The spindle obtains power from the motor and transmits
it to the arbor. The arbor carrying the cutter rotates about a horizontal axis.
d) Overarm mounted on the vertical column supports the yoke, which in turn
supports the free end of the arbor.
e) Knee is a casting that slides up and down on the vertical guideways provided
on the column by means of an elevating screw. The knee supports the saddle.
f) Saddle mounted on the knee is provided with two slides (guideways) on its
top and bottom surfaces. The slides are machined at right angles to each other. The
lower slide fits the slide provided on top of the knee and facilitates horizontal
movement of the saddle. The upper slide provided on the saddle accepts the slide
provided on the bottom surface of the worktable.
g) Worktable is larger in size and rests on the saddle. The bottom surface of
the table has a dovetail slide that fits in the slide on the top surface of the saddle.
This arrangement facilitates the work table to be moved longitudinally or at right
angles to the movement of the saddle. The worktable is provided with T-slots all
along its length for mounting vice or other work holding devices. This enables the
workpiece to be clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable may be manually
controlled or power fed. A dial graduated in thousandths of an inch (not shown in
figure) is provided to allow for accurate table movement and placement.

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VERTICAL SPINDLE COLUMN & KNEE MILLING MACHINE:

Vertical spindle milling machines are similar in construction to the horizontal

milling machines, except that the spindle is held in a vertical position. This type of
machine is generally used to perform end milling and face milling operations.
a) Base is usually a strong and a hollow part, which forms the foundation of the
machine and upon which all the other parts are mounted. The base also serves as a
sump for the cutting fluid. A pump and filtration system can be installed in the base.
The hole provided in the center of the base, houses the support for the elevating
screw that raises and lowers the knee.
b) Column is a vertical hollow casting and is usually combined with the base to
form a single casting. The column houses the spindle and bearings as well as the
drive units (gears, clutches, shafts, and shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power
from the electric motor to the spindle at desired speeds. The front face of the

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vertical column is provided with a square or dovetail type guideways on which the
knee slides up and down.
c) Overarm mounted on the vertical column supports the yoke, which in turn
supports the free end of the arbor.
d) Knee is a casting that slides up and down on the vertical guideways provided
on the column by means of an elevating screw. The knee supports the saddle.
e) Saddle mounted on the knee is provided with two slides (guideways) on its
top and bottom surfaces. The slides are machined at right angles to each other. The
lower slide fits the slide provided on top of the knee and facilitates horizontal
movement of the saddle. The upper slide provided on the saddle accepts the slide
provided on the bottom surface of the worktable.
f) Worktable is larger in size and rests on the saddle. The bottom surface of the
table has a dovetail slide that fits in the slide on the top surface of the saddle. This
arrangement facilitates the work table to be moved longitudinally or at right angles
to the movement of the saddle. The worktable is provided with T-slots all along its
length for mounting vice or other work holding devices. This enables the workpiece
to be clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable may be manually controlled or
power fed. A dial graduated in thousandths of an inch (not shown in figure) is
provided to allow for accurate table movement and placement.
g) Spindle is located vertically, parallel to the face of the column, and
perpendicular to the top of the worktable. The spindle is mounted in the spindle head
and carries the cutter at its end. The spindle head houses the motor & feed controls,
& can be either fixed type or swiveling type
In fixed type, the spindle head is fixed, and hence the spindle remains vertical.
The spindle can be adjusted up and down to perform operations like grooving,
slotting, facing, drilling and boring. While, in swiveling type, the spindle head can be
swiveled to any angle to the surface of the worktable. This permits working on angular
surfaces of workpieces.

Milling Process
Plain Milling or slab Milling
Plain milling, also called surface milling, peripheral milling or slab milling is a
machining process for producing a plain horizontal surface with a milling cutter whose
axis is parallel to the surface of the work piece being machined. The process is carried
out on a horizontal milling machine with a cutter having straight or helical teeth
formed on the periphery of a cylindrical surface. The cutter is mounted on the arbor,
rotating at a suitable speed, while the work piece is fed against the cutter causing
material to be removed from the work piece. A plain smooth surface can be produced
with this process. Helical tooth cutter removes greater amount of material and
produces a smooth surface finish when compared to the straight tooth cutters.

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SLOT MILLING
Slot milling is a machining process for producing slots like T-slots, plain slots,
dovetail slots etc., in worktable fixtures and other work holding devices. The operation
may be performed using either end milling cutter, T-slot cutter, dovetail cutter, or side
milling cutter. The type of cutter selected depends on the shape of the slot to be
produced.

Two separate milling cutters are required for milling T-slots. Initially, a plain
cutter, side cutter or an end milling cutter is used to cut the throat (open slot) starting
from one end of the workpiece to its other end. A T-slot milling cutter is then used to
cut the headspace to the desired dimensions. Similar procedure is followed for cutting
a dovetail slot, but a dovetail slot cutter is used in place of T-slot cutter.

DRILLING MACHINE:

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It is a machine which is used to drill the holes on the components or workpiece

with the help of drill bits. The drill bits are also called as Multi-point cutting tools which
can have their rapid impact on the Material Removal Rate (MRR) i.e. a single-point
cutting tool (like the one used in a lathe machine) can remove the material slowly
whereas, a multi-point cutting tool removes the material at a faster rate and thereby
increases MRR.

PARTS OF DRILLING MACHINE:

The parts of Drilling Machine are as follows.
 Base
 Vertical Column
 Swivel Table
 Power Transmission system (Stepped Cone Pulley)
 Drill Feed Handle (Hand Wheel)
 Chuck
 Table Clamp
 Drill bit
 Spindle

EXPLANATION FOR THE PARTS OF DRILLING MACHINE:

BASE:
The base is made up of Cast Iron which has the capability of high compressive
strength, good wear resistance, and good absorbing capability (i.e. absorb the
vibrations induced during working condition) and for these reasons, it acts as a base
to the drilling machine.

VERTICAL COLUMN:
It is exactly placed at the center of the base which can act as a support for
rotating the Swivel table and holding the power transmission system.

SWIVEL TABLE:
It is attached to the column which can hold the machine vice in the grips and
thereby, the workpiece is fixed in the machine vice to carry out the drilling operation.
The Swivel table can move up and down by means of rotational motion and can be
locked to the column by means of locking nut.
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:
It consists of motor, stepped pulley, V-belt, and the Spindle. The power
transmission is explained in the working of the drilling machine.

DRILL FEED HANDLE:

By the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical
direction in order to give the necessary amount of feed to the work. Here, the
rotational motion is converted into linear motion by means of a Rack and Pinion
mechanism which was explained below.

CHUCK:
It is used to hold the workpiece. Generally, 3 jaw chuck is used for holding
circular components and 4 jaw chuck is used for holding rectangular components.

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TABLE CLAMP:
It is used to lock the swivel table at the desired location.

SPINDLE:
It is used to hold the drillbit along with jaws.

DRILL BIT:
It is the major part of this machine and is used to remove the material in the
form of holes from the surface of the workpiece.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING MACHINE:

When the power is given to the motor, the spindle rotates, and thereby the
stepped pulley attached to it also rotates. On the other end, one more stepped pulley
is attached and that is inverted to increase or decrease the speed of the rotational
motion.

Now, a V-belt is placed in between the stepped pulleys so as to drive the power
transmission. Here a V-belt is used instead of a flat belt, in order to increase the
power efficiency.

Now the drill bit also rotates which was placed in the chuck and which was in
connection with the spindle. As the Pulleys rotates, the spindle also rotates which can
rotate the drill bit.

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Now, by the rotation of hand-wheel, the spindle moves up and down in the
vertical direction in order to give the necessary amount of feed to the work and this
drill bit is used to make the holes on the component placed in the machine vice.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINES:

Below is the list of drilling machines which are used in the industries for the
production of the materials.
 Radial drilling machine
 Upright drilling machine
 Multiple Spindle drilling machine
 Deep hole drilling machine
 Sensitive drilling machine
 Portable drilling machine
 Gang drilling machine

DRILLING:
 Drilling is the most important and common drilling machine operation. In the
drilling, we usually, produce a cylindrical hole inside the work piece and remove
the material inside it. Here, the material is removed by the rotating edge of
the cutting tool. And that rotating edge is called a drill.
 Drilling does not produce a fine hole. The internal surface of the hole is usually
rough, and the hole is always bigger than the drill size.
 Suppose if we have a drill of 12mm diameter then, the size of the hole produced
by it may be 12.125 mm or greater than that.

REAMING:
 The size of the hole after the drilling process may not be perfect. Most of the
time, its internal surface may not be finished properly.
 Reaming is done to obtain the desired size of the hole. Also, the internal surface
of the hole gets appropriately finished with this process. Reamer is used for
reaming. Reamer is a multi-point cutting tool.
 The important benefit of the reaming is that it can remove an extremely small
amount of metal approximately 0.375 mm
 The spindle speed in reaming is half of that of the
drilling process.

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TAPPING
 In tapping, a tap is used for making internal threads. That means tap works as a
cutting tool inside the tapping.
 Tapping in a drilling machine can be performed by hand. Or you can also use
any external power for doing this.
 The metal is removed, when the tap is inserted into the hole. Tap also produces
internal threads which can be fit into the external threads of the identical size.

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED MANUFACTURING

Advanced manufacturing refers to the use of new innovative technologies,
processes, and methods for producing the desired products. While Traditional
manufacturing is based on the use of dedicated plant and production lines with little

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or no flexibility, Advanced manufacturing involves versatile production methods that

fully utilize capital plant and are more efficient, effective and responsive. Although
there are circumstances where traditional, dedicated methods are still appropriate,
advanced manufacturing has the capacity to accommodate the varying production
requirements and mass customization commonly encountered by industries, without
the need for excessive capital investment. A few manufacturing systems or
technologies defined under advanced manufacturing include:
1) CAD/CAM/CAE
2) Rapid prototyping (Additive manufacturing)
3) Industrial Robotics etc.

CNC MACHINES
CNC is a short name for Computer Numerical Control. It refers to a computer
controller that accepts a program or a set of instructions and stores it in the memory
of the computer, which in turn controls the working of the machine tool. The program
can be modified or edited while it is in the computer memory as and whenever
required thereby offering a great degree of flexibility in manufacturing

COMPONENTS OF CNC MACHINE

The external appearance of a CNC machine is very similar to that of a NC
machine, however the limitations of a NC machine is successfully overcome with the
various components incorporated in a CNC machine. CNC machine basically consists
of three components.
These include:
 Part program and program input device
 Controller unit, also called machine control unit (MCU), and
 Machine tool.

PART PROGRAM & PROGRAM INPUT DEVICE

In a CNC machine, the part program is done either manually on punched tapes
and then fed into the memory of the computer, or with the aid of various computer
softwares that automatically generates the program required to produce the desired
part. In today's industrial practice, manual method of programming is obsolete.

MACHINE CONTROL UNIT (MCU)

In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) consists of a
microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program of instructions
and executes it by converting each command into mechanical actions of machine
tool, one command at a time. The MCU includes system software, calculation
algorithm, and transition software to convert the part program into a usable format for
the MCU. It also acts as a feedback controller for precise positioning of machine table
or spindle.

FeedBack
Program
Input Device Controller
Tool
Unit
(Computer)
Work Piece
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MACHINE TOOL
The machine tool performs the actual machining operation, and can be of any
type like lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, etc. The machine tool consists of
work table and tool spindles whose motion can be controlled accurately by the driving
system that receives commands from the MCU. A part with the desired features is
produced by the machine tool.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

ADVANTAGES

 HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY. The machine can run for 24-hours, in all the 365 days
with little or no interruption.
 HIGHER PRECISION, with better quality control of products.
 Multi operational facilities (or tasks).
 Does not require a skilled operator.
 IMPROVED AUTOMATION - The operator intervention during manufacturing
can be reduced, and in some cases eliminated. Many CNC machines can run
unattended during their entire machining cycle, thereby freeing the operator to
do other tasks.
 REPEATABILITY & RELIABILITY-Once the program is verified and executed for
one production run, the same program can be recalled for subsequent
productions thereby maintaining uniformity in the dimensions and tolerances of
the parts. Hence CNC machines can be consistently relied upon.
 FLEXIBILITY-CNC machines can run a variety of programs and have workpieces
leading to fast changeovers and set-ups. Further, programs can be modified as
and when required before starting the operation.
 MOTION CONTROL-CNC machines allow motion of the cutting tool in two or
more directions (x, y & z-axis), or move the machine slide, spindle, or other
parts precisely by means of servomotors instead of the usual cams, levers, etc.,
as in the case of conventional machines
 INCREASED MACHINE UTILIZATION- if properly used, CNC machines can run
continuously for 24 hours and 365 days

DISADVANTAGES
 High initial cost of the machine
 High maintenance cost
 Requires skilled programmer.

CNC MACHINING CENTERS

A machining center can be defined as a CNC machine tool, controlled by a
computer program that can perform multiple machining operations like milling,
drilling, tapping and boring operations by variety of tools with Automatic Tool Changer

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ATC) unit. In short, Machining centers refer to CNC milling machines CNC machining
centers can be broadly categorized into two varieties: Vertical machining centers
(VMC) and Horizontal machining centers (HMC),

VERTICAL MACHINING CENTERS (VMC)

Vertical Machining centers with vertical spindles are mainly used for flat type of
work, such as plates, where the machining is done on only one face of the workpiece
in a single set-up. With the use of rotary tables, more than one side of a workpiece, or
several work pieces, can be machined without operator intervention. Vertical
machining centres using a rotary table have four axes of motion: three are linear
motions of the table while the fourth is the table's rotary axis that can be used either
for indexing or a pull rotary motion.

HORIZONTAL MACHINING CENTERS (HMC)

Horizontal machining centers with horizontal spindles are used for heavy
rectangular parts, where the machining has to be done on more than one face in a
single setup. Since the machines involve bulk metal removal rates, the cutting tools
used are normally large in size. The maintenance and cost of the machine is
comparatively higher. Like vertical machining centers, horizontal centers have
multiple-axis table movements. Typically, the horizontal centers table ic capable of
rotating to all four sides of a workpiece to the tooling.

CNC TURNING CENTERS

A turning centre can be defined as a CNC machine tool controlled by a computer
program that can perform multiple machining operations like cylindrical turning, taper
turning, thread cutting, facing, parting-off, and other operations by a variety of tools
mounted on a turret with Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) unit. In short, Turning centres
refer to CNC lathes. All the operations are similar in principle to that performed on a
traditional lathe, except the operations with relevant tools and process parameters
like speed, feed, and depth of cut are all controlled by the computer program.

DEFINE 3D PRINTING or ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING:

Additive manufacturing is the formalized term for what used to be called rapid
prototyping and what is popularly called 3D Printing. The term rapid prototyping (RP)
is used in a variety of industries to describe a process for rapidly creating a system or
part representation before final release or commercialization.
It can be defined as the layer by layer fabrication of three dimensional models
directly from a computer aided design data.

ADDITIVE CONVENTIONAL
MANUFACTURING MANUFACTURING

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Produces a model by adding layer Produces a model by removing bit by

bit

Material Addition process Subtraction process

(Material Removal Process)

Complex geometry Complex geometry limited

unlimited

Reduced lead time & cost Increased lead time & cost.

GENERIC PROCESS OF AM:

AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description to
the physical resultant part. Different products will involve AM in different ways and to
different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only make use of AM for
visualization models, while larger, more complex products with greater engineering
content may involve AM during numerous stages and iterations throughout the
development process. Furthermore, early stages of the product development process
may only require rough parts, with AM being used because of the speed at which they
can be fabricated. At later stages of the process, parts may require careful cleaning
and post-processing (including sanding, surface preparation, and painting) before they
are used, with AM being useful here because of the complexity of form that can be
created without having to consider tooling. Later on, we will investigate thoroughly
the different stages of the AM process, but to summarize, most AM processes involve,
to some degree at least, the following eight steps

Step 1: CAD
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the external
geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid modelling
software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface representation. Reverse
engineering equipment (e.g., laser and optical scanning) can also be used to create
this representation.

Step 2: Conversion to STL

Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become a de
facto standard, and nowadays nearly every CAD system can output such a file format.
This file describes the external closed surfaces of the original CAD model and forms
the basis for calculation of the slices.

Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation

The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AM machine. Here,
there may be some general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size,
position, and orientation for building.

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Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such
settings would relate to the build parameters like the material constraints, energy
source, layer thickness, timings, etc.

Step 5: Build
Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine can largely
carry on without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs to take
place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place like running out of material,
power or software glitches, etc.

Step 6: Removal
Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed. This
may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks to ensure
for example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that there are no
actively moving parts.

Step 7: Post-processing
Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of additional
cleaning up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this stage or they
may have supporting features that must be removed. This therefore often requires
time and careful, experienced manual manipulation.

Step 8: Application
Parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may also require additional
treatment before they are acceptable for use. For example, they may require priming

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and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and finish. Treatments may be
laborious and lengthy if the finishing requirements are very demanding. They may
also be required to be assembled together with other mechanical or electronic
components to form a final model or product.

AM PROCESS

Photo Polymerization Process Printing Process

Stereolithography (SLA), 3D Printing, Ballistic
Solid Ground Curing (SGC) Particle Manufacturing
(BPM)

Extrusion Process
Fused Deposition Modelling Powder Bed Sintering
(FDM) SLS, DMLS. SLM, EBM

Sheet Lamination Process

Laminated Object Modeling Metal Deposition Process
(LOM) LENS, DMD

Photo Polymerization
Stereo lithography (SLA), Solid Ground Curing(SGC)
Process

Extrusion Process Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)

Sheet Lamination Process Laminated Object Modelling (LOM)

Printing Process 3D printing, BPM (Ballistic Particle Manufacturing)

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Direct Metal Laser

Powder Bed Sintering Sintering (DMLS), Selective Laser Melting (SLM),
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (Lens), Direct metal

Metal Deposition Process
Deposition (DMD)

ADVANTAGES:
• No fixtures is required
• No material wastage
• Complex parts can be manufactured.
• Excellent surface finished parts – hence less or no finishing operation.

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• High Production rate.

• Less Defects.
• No limitation of Material
• Process speed is very high.

DISADVANTAGES:
• Not suitable for large components.
• Parts inside are difficult to manufacture.
• Post processing is necessary for the parts.
• Needs supports structures for overhanging features.
• Few process leaves fumes and odours.
• Machines set up is time consuming process.
• Few processes need continuous supervision.

JOINING PROCESS:
There are various processes by which two or more parts can be joined together.
The joints obtained by these processes may be temporary or permanent. Joints
obtained by processes like brazing, soldering, bolts and nuts, studs and nuts, screws,
etc., are temporary in nature. In other words, the connected parts can be separated
easily without damage to them. Whereas processes like welding, riveting, etc.,
produce permanent joints. The joints obtained by these processes will be such that
the connected parts have to be broken in order to separate them.
Of all the various processes, welding, brazing, and soldering are different from
others, in the sense that, in these processes, the parts are joined by the application of
heat. Following sections deals with the fundamentals of soldering, brazing, and
welding processes

SOLDERING:
Principle of soldering

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Soldering is a group of joining process used for joining similar or dissimilar

metals by means of a filler metal whose melting temperature is below 450°C. The
filler metal usually called solder is an alloy of tin and lead in various proportions.
Soldering involves melting the filler metal (selder) and allowing it to flow into
the gap between the two workpieces. The solder cools down and solidifies forming a
joint. The resulting joint although not as strong as the base metal (workpiece metal),
still has adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness that makes it
suitable for many uses.

ADVANTAGES:
 Low Power Requirements
 Low Temperature Process
 Dissimilar parts can be easily soldered.
 Thin parts can be joined easily.

Disadvantages of Soldering
 Flux residues should be removed after soldering, otherwise which causes
corrosion.
 Thick parts cannot be efficiently joined.
 Since soldering temperatures are low, a soldered joint cannot be used in high
temperature applications.
 Strength of joint is low. Hence cannot be used for load-bearing members.

Applications of Soldering
 One of the most common applications of soldering is assembling electronic
components to printed circuit boards (PCB's). Another common application is
making connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems.
 Joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, metal containers, and rain
gutters are made by soldering. The process can also be used as a semi-
permanent patch for a leak in a container, or cooking vessel.

BRAZING
Brazing is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a filler
metal whose melting temperature is above 450°C, but below the melting point of the
base metal (workpiece). The filler metal called spelter is a non-ferrous metal or alloy.
Copper and copper alloys, silver and silver alloys, and aluminum alloys are the most
commonly used filler metals for brazing.
The flow of molten filler material into the gap between the two workpieces is
driven by the capillary force. The filler material cools down and solidifies forming a
strong, metallurgical joint.

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Advantages of Brazing
 Much heat is not involved in the process. Hence, low thermal distortions and
residual stresses in the joints.
 Easily automated process.
 Dissimilar parts can be joined.

Disadvantages of Brazing
 Flux residues must be removed after brazing, otherwise which may cause
corrosion.
 Large and thick sections cannot be brazed efficiently.
 Relatively expensive filler materials.

Application of Brazing
 Brazing is employed in areas such as automotive, aerospace and tool industries,
where high demands exist for strength and fatigue, corrosion- and oxidation
resistance.
 Brazing is used for fastening pipe fittings, tanks, carbide tips on tools, radiators,
heat exchangers, electrical parts, axles, parts of bicycle such as frame and rims,
etc.
 It can be used to join cast metals to wrought metals, dissimilar metals and also
porous metal components.

WELDING
Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more work pieces usually
metals are joined permanently to form a single component the process is carried out
by heating the edges of workplace to suitable temperature and then fuse together
with or without the application of pressure since a slide gap usually exist between the
exist of the work pieces a filler material is used to supply additional material to fill the
gap however welding can also be carried without the use of material the filler metal is
metal in the gap combines with the molten metal of the work is and upon soldier
forms integral part of the weld.

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING

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 The strength of the joint obtained in the welding is much stronger than the work
piece metal.
 Metals with different chemical compositions can be welded easily.
 Wedding equipment’s are portable hence the parts can be fabricated at the
relevant location instead of transporting the entire assembly to its destination
 complex shapes that are different to cast or machine can be easily assembly in
parts by welding
 parts can be fabricated at responsible costly
 welding process can be automated

DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING

 The process can give out harmful radiation fumes and patcher hence care should
be taken during welding
 skilled operators is required to produce a good joint
 The high heat involved in the process causes change in the structure of the metal
there by lowering it's properties.

APPLICATIONS OF WELDING
Welding fine application in ship building automobile aircraft power plant
buildings and bridge constructions storage tank preservation refrigerator machine
tools and almost in all sector where parts are fabricated as per the needs apart from
fabrication work welding is also used in repair and maintenance work for example
joining broken parts and rebuilding wall out components.

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESS

In general welding process can our classified into two types plastic welding and fusion
welding

1) PLASTIC WELDING

In plastic welding the metal parts to be joined our heated to the plastic state or
slightly above and then fuse together by applying external pressure no filler material
is used in this process example for gives welding friction welding resistance welding
etc. plastic welding is also called a pressure welding process

2) FUSION WEDDING

In fusion welding the parts to be join our heated above their melting temperatures
and then allowed to solidify by cooling a filler metal may or may not be used during
the wedding process example arc welding gas welding laser welding etc.

ARC WELDING PROCESS.

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Arc welding process is effusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity
of an electric Arc to made the work peace metals a solid continuous joints is formed
upon cooling either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current for the
welding.
In this process the electrode holder holding the electrode family from one pole
of the electric circuit while the work peace to the welded form the other pole the
electrode cells both to carry the arc and also acts as a filler rod to deposit the molten
metal into the joint

The electrode used in arc welding process is a metal wire which is made up of
same material or nearly the same chemical composition as that of the work which
material the metallic wire is coated with a suitable flux metal like retile(titania),
calcium fluoride, cellulose, iron oxide etc. which can of gases as is decompose their by
preventing oxidation of the molten metal during the welding process.

In operations and Arc is truck by touching the tip of the electrode on the peace
and instantaneously the electrode is separated by a small distance of 2-4 mm such
that the arcade still remains between the electrode and the workplace temperature of
the art ranges from 5000 to 6000 degree Celsius. The high heat at the tip of the arc
metals to the work is metal forming a small Molten metal pole at the same time the
tip of the electrode also merits the mountain metal of the electrode is transferred into
the multimeter of the work piece in the form of globules of molten metal the
deposited metal feels the joints and wants the joint to form a single piece of metal the
electrode is mode along the surface of the valid to the complete the joint the Archies
extinguished by the increasing the arc length that is by welding the gap between the
work please and then electrode.

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ADVANTAGES
 The process is simple and expensive hence suitable for shop jobs and field
works
eliminates skilled labour.
 the process dominates other welding processes in maintaining and repair
industry
 used to weld for rest and few non ferrous metals like aluminium nickel
copper alloy etc

DISADVANTAGES
 weld times are rather slow since the consumable electrode must be
frequently replaced.
 Weld spatter, poor fusion, swallow penetration and cracking are a few major
problems associated with the process however, by proper welding practice,
they can be minimized.

APPLICATIONS
Arc welding finds application in building and bridge construction ship buildings
boilers and pressure vessel fabrication joining of large pipes and Ben stocks and in
almost all the repair and maintenance work.

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