CHE 403 LECTURE NOTE

Paper making by hand

using simple tools and manual operations. The process involves the following steps:

1. Preparation of Pulp

The raw material (plant fibres, or wood pulp) is first soaked in water to soften it. It is then beaten

or blended to separate the fibres and produce uniform pulp slurry. Beating increases fibre

fibrillation, which improves bonding and paper strength.

2. Dilution of Pulp

The prepared pulp is mixed with a large quantity of clean water in a container to obtain a very

dilute suspension. This ensures uniform fibre distribution and even sheet formation.

3. Sheet Formation (Mould and Deckle Operation)

A mould and deckle is used for forming the sheet.

 The mould is a wooden frame fitted with a fine wire mesh.

 The deckle is a removable frame placed on top of the mould to control the sheet size.

The mould and deckle are dipped into the pulp suspension and lifted horizontally. Gentle shaking

distributes the fibres evenly and allows water to drain through the mesh, leaving a wet fibre mat

on the screen.
4. Couching

The wet sheet is transferred (couched) from the mould onto a felt, cloth, or absorbent surface by

inverting the mould and pressing lightly. This step removes excess water and prepares the sheet

for pressing.

5. Pressing

Several wet sheets are stacked between felts and pressed manually or with a simple press to

remove more water and improve fibre bonding.

6. Drying

The pressed sheets are separated and air-dried by hanging them on ropes, placing them on drying

boards, or sticking them onto smooth heated surfaces.

7. Finishing

After drying, the paper may be calendered, surface-sized, burnished, or trimmed to obtain the

desired smoothness, thickness, and appearance.

Characteristics of Handmade Paper

 High strength and durability

 Deckle edges (rough natural edges)

 Good absorbency and texture

 Used for artistic, archival, and specialty purposes

equipment, and can utilize recycled fibres and agricultural residues.

Papermaking Using Recycled Waste Paper

Papermaking from recycled waste paper is a simple, low-cost, and environmentally friendly

method that converts used paper into new sheets through manual operations. It is widely used in

small-scale and cottage industries.

1. Collection and Sorting

Waste papers such as old newspapers, office paper, notebooks, and cartons are collected and

sorted. Non-paper materials like plastics, pins, staples, and synthetic coatings are removed to

avoid defects in the final sheet.

2. Cutting and Soaking

The sorted paper is cut or torn into small pieces and soaked in clean water for several hours (or

overnight). Soaking softens the fibres and makes them easier to disintegrate into pulp.

3. Pulping (Beating or Blending)

The soaked paper is mechanically disintegrated using a wooden mallet, mortar and pestle, or an

electric blender. This separates the fibres and produces a uniform pulp slurry. More beating

improves fibre bonding and increases paper strength.

The pulp is poured into a vat and mixed with a large amount of water to obtain a dilute

suspension. At this stage, additives may be introduced:

 Starch or glue → for sizing and strength

 Alum → for fixing the size

 Dyes or pigments → for colour

 Natural fibres or flower petals → for decorative paper

5. Sheet Formation (Mould and Deckle)

A mould and deckle are dipped into the pulp suspension and lifted horizontally. Gentle shaking

distributes the fibres evenly while water drains through the screen, forming a wet sheet.

6. Couching

The wet sheet is transferred onto a cloth or flat board by inverting the mould. This process

removes excess water and allows continuous sheet production.

7. Pressing

A stack of wet sheets and felts is pressed manually using a screw press, roller, or weights.

Pressing removes more water, increases sheet density, and improves fibre bonding.

8. Drying

The sheets are carefully separated and dried by:

 Hanging on ropes

 Using a heated surface

9. Finishing

After drying, the paper may be:

 Surface sized for writing quality

 Burnished or calendered for smoothness

 Cut into required sizes

Advantages

 Reduces solid waste and environmental pollution

 Saves trees and conserves natural resources

 Requires low energy and simple equipment

 Produces strong, artistic, and biodegradable paper

Products Made

 Writing and printing paper

 Greeting cards and envelopes

 File covers and packaging materials

 Decorative and craft paper

for waste management, resource conservation, and small-scale employment generation.

Paper Making by Machine

Machine papermaking is a continuous and highly mechanized process in which dilute pulp is

converted into a continuous paper sheet. The most widely used machine is the Fourdrinier paper

machine, although twin-wire and cylinder machines are also used.

1. Stock Preparation

Pulp from chemical or mechanical pulping is first refined and mixed with water to form uniform

slurry (about 0.5–1% fibre). Additives are introduced depending on the grade of paper:

 Fillers (clay, calcium carbonate) → improve opacity and smoothness

 Sizing agents → improve resistance to liquid penetration

 Dyes and optical brighteners → improve appearance

 Retention aids → improve fibre and filler retention

The prepared stock is cleaned and screened to remove impurities.

2. Headbox Section

The diluted stock is pumped to the headbox, where it is evenly distributed across the width of the

moving wire. The headbox controls:

 Flow rate

 Fibre orientation
  Basis weight

 Sheet uniformity

The stock leaves the headbox as a thin, uniform jet.

3. Forming Section (Wire Section)

The jet of pulp lands on a moving wire mesh (forming fabric). Water drains by gravity and

suction, leaving a wet web of interlocked fibres.

Key processes:

 Initial drainage

 Table rolls and foils for water removal

 Vacuum boxes for further dewatering

At the end of this section, the sheet contains about 18–25% solid fibre.

4. Press Section

The wet web passes through a series of press rolls covered with felts. Mechanical pressure

removes more water and increase fibre bonding. Solid content increases to about 40–50%.

5. Drying Section

The sheet passes over a series of steam-heated drying cylinders. Moisture is evaporated until the

paper reaches about 90–95% dryness. Proper drying improves:

 Strength
  Dimensional stability

 Surface properties

6. Calendering

The dried sheet passes through calender rolls to obtain the desired:

 Thickness

 Smoothness

 Gloss

 Uniform surface

7. Reeling and Winding

The finished paper is wound into large rolls at the reel. It is then slit and cut into smaller rolls or

sheets according to required sizes.

8. Finishing Operations

Additional treatments may include:

 Surface sizing

 Coating

 Supercalendering

 Cutting and packaging

 Continuous and high-speed production

 Uniform sheet quality

 High output and efficiency

 Suitable for large-scale industrial production